Physical Sciences and Mathematics Commons^™

Deer, Scott R. Craven, Scott E. Hygnstrom

Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage Handbook

Deer (Odocoileus virginianus) are probably the most widely distributed and best-recognized large mammals in North America. Deer are even-toed ungulates of the family Cervidae. The white-tailed deer is found in every state in the United States except perhaps Alaska and Utah. Deer are creatures of the forest edge rather than the dense, old-growth forest. Browse (leaves, stems, and buds of woody plants) is generally available all year and is a staple food for deer. Breeding occurs from October to January depending on latitude. Deer damage a wide variety of row crops, forage crops, vegetables, fruit trees, nursery stock, …

Elk, David S. Decalesta, Gary W. Witmer

Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage Handbook

The elk is a large, powerful animal with an adult weight averaging over 400 pounds (180 kg). The Rocky Mountain elk (Cervus elaphus nelsoni) is found in the Rocky Mountain states and in scattered locations in the Midwest and East. Although elk once roamed freely into lower elevation grasslands, they are now found primarily close to heavily forested areas that are dotted with natural or human-made (clear-cut) openings. Elk graze on grasses and forbs, and browse on shrubs, tree seedlings, and saplings. Weather and human activities influence elk activity. Elk commonly impact agricultural resources by competing with domestic …

Moles, F. Robert Henderson

Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage Handbook

Yates and Pedersen (1982) list seven North American species of moles. They are the eastern mole (Scalopus aquaticus), hairy-tailed mole (Parascalops breweri), star-nosed mole (Condylura cristata), broad-footed mole (Scapanus latimanus), Townsend’s mole (Scapanus townsendii), coast mole (Scapanus orarius), and shrew mole (Neurotrichus gibbsii). Out of the seven species that occur in North America, three inhabit lands east of the Rocky Mountains (Yates and Pedersen 1982). The mole lives in the seclusion of underground burrows, coming to the surface only rarely, and then often by accident. The …

Pronghorn Antelope (Antilocapra Americana), Sanford D. Schemnitz

Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage Handbook

The pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) is not a true antelope but in a family by itself (Antilocapridae). It is native only to North America. Pronghorns currently have a scattered but widespread distribution throughout western North America. Pronghorns thrive in short and mixed grasslands and sagebrush grasslands. Pronghorns eat a variety of plants, mostly forbs and browse. Pronghorns depend on their eyesight and speed to escape enemies. Pronghorns sometimes cause damage to grain fields, alfalfa, and haystacks during the winter. Pronghorns have game-animal status in all of the western states.

Cottontail Rabbits, Scott R. Craven

Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage Handbook

Rabbits (Sylvilagus floridanus) usually can be accepted as interesting additions to the backyard or rural landscape if control techniques are applied correctly. Under some unusual circumstances, control of damage may be difficult. There are 13 species of cottontail rabbits (genus Sylvilagus), nine of which are found in various sections of North America north of Mexico. The eastern cottontail’s range includes the entire United States east of the Rocky Mountains and introductions further west. Cottontails do not distribute themselves evenly across the landscape. Rabbits live only 12 to 15 months, and probably only one rabbit in 100 lives …

Jackrabbits And Other Hares, James E. Knight

Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage Handbook

Three major species of jackrabbits occur in North America: Blacktail jackrabbit (Lepus californicus), whitetail jackrabbits (L. townsendii), and showshoe hare (L. americanus). The whitetail jackrabbit is found mainly in the north central and northwestern United States and no further south than the extreme north central part of New Mexico and southern Kansas. Members of the genus Lepus are born well-furred and able to move about. Hares consume 1/2 to 1 pound (1.1 to 2.2 kg) of green vegetation each day. Jackrabbits are considered nongame animals in most states and are not protected by state …

Shrews, Robert H. Schmidt

Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage Handbook

The shrew (Sorex cinereus) is a small, mouse-sized mammal with an elongated snout, a dense fur of uniform color, small eyes, and five clawed toes on each foot. Shrews are broadly distributed throughout the world and North America. Shrews vary widely in habitat preferences throughout North America. Shrews are in the taxonomic order Insectivora. Shrews are among the world’s smallest mammals. Most species of shrews do not have significant negative impacts and are not abundant enough to be considered pests (Schmidt 1984).

Bird Damage At Aquaculture Facilities, W. Paul Gorenzel, Fred S. Conte, Terrell P. Salmon

Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage Handbook

Reduction of the damage caused by fish-eating birds requires accurate bird identification and some knowledge of avian biology and habits. The open-water areas and large concentrations of aquatic livestock at aquaculture facilities are natural attractants to many birds. Birds can have a significant economic impact on the culture of aquatic products including fish, shellfish, crustaceans, and other invertebrates. For our purpose here, we will refer to these birds as fish-eating birds, and the aquatic products as fish.

Horned Larks, Jerry P. Clark, Scott E. Hygnstrom

Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage Handbook

Horned larks (Eremophila alpestris) are ground-dwelling birds that are slightly larger than house sparrows. They are brown, with a yellowish face, black breast, black “whiskers,” and two small black “horns.” Horned larks breed widely throughout North America, from northern Alaska to southern Mexico. In certain parts of California the horned lark is a serious crop pest. The food of the horned lark consists largely of seeds picked up from the ground. Vegetable crops damaged by horned larks include beets, broccoli, carrots, lettuce, peas, spinach, and tomatoes. Other field and truck crops damaged are alfalfa, grain, sugar beets, cantaloupes, …

American Crows, Ron J. Johnson

Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage Handbook

The American crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos) is one of America’s best-known birds. American crows are widely distributed over much of North America. American crows do best in a mixture of open fields where food can be found and woodlots where there are trees for nesting and roosting. Crows are omnivorous, eating almost anything, and they readily adapt food habits to changing seasons and available food supply. Crows are among the most intelligent of birds. Experiments indicate that American crows can count to three or four, are good at solving puzzles, have good memories, employ a diverse and behaviorally complex …

Bird Dispersal Techniques, Thurman W. Booth

Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage Handbook

Birds, especially migratory birds, provide enjoyment and recreation for many and greatly enhance the quality of our lives. These colorful components of natural ecosystems are often studied, viewed, photographed, hunted, and otherwise enjoyed. Unfortunately, bird activities sometimes conflict with human interests. Birds may depredate agricultural crops, create health hazards, and compete for limited resources with other more favorable wildlife species. The management of bird populations or the manipulation of bird habitats to minimize such conflicts is an important aspect of wildlife management. Problems associated with large concentrations of birds can often be reduced through techniques of dispersal or relocation of …

House Finches (Linnets), Jerry P. Clark, Scott E. Hygnstrom

Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage Handbook

House finches (Carpodacus mexicanus), also known as linnets, are about the same size as house sparrows. House finches are abundant residents throughout the western United States and Mexico. The house finch is most abundant in the warm valleys of California near cultivated lands. House finches are primarily seed eaters, and before the introduction of cultivated fruits, they probably lived largely on weed seeds. House finches nest in a great variety of places. House finches peck and feed on practically all deciduous fruits, berries, grains, vegetable seed, and flower seed. House finches are classified as migratory nongame birds in …

Scrub (Or California) Jay, Jerry P. Clark, Scott E. Hygnstrom

Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage Handbook

The scrub (or California) jay (Aphelocoma coerulescens) is distinguished by its crestless head, olive-gray back, and white throat, outlined in blue. Scrub jays are found in the western United States, parts of Mexico, and in central Florida. Scrub jays commonly inhabit the oak and brush-covered foothills of the mountains, timbered canyons, river bottoms, oak-lined sloughs and creeks, as well as the shade trees and dense shrubbery of residential areas. Beal (1910) reported that the diet of the scrub jay consisted of 73% plant and 27% animal matter. The plant matter was about one-third fruits and berries, and two-thirds …

Crowned Sparrows, Jerry Clark, Scott E. Hygnstrom

Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage Handbook

White-crowned sparrows (Zonotrichia leucophrys) are distinguished by their pink or yellowish bill, erect posture, gray throat and breast, and prominent crown streaked with black and white. Geographic races, including the mountain (Z. l. oriantha), Gambel’s (Z. l. gambelii), Nuttall’s (Z. L. nuttalli), and Puget Sound white-crowned sparrow (Z. l. pugetensis) show minor differences in head pattern, bill color, and song. Their songs vary geographically, but consist primarily of clear whistles. White-crowned sparrows are abundant in the western United States. They breed primarily in Alaska and Canada and winter in the …

Pigeons (Rock Doves), David E. Williams, Robert M. Corrigan

Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage Handbook

Pigeons (Columbia livia) typically have a gray body with a whitish rump, two black bars on the secondary wing feathers, a broad black band on the tail, and red feet. Pigeons are found throughout the United States (including Hawaii), southern Canada, and Mexico. Pigeons are highly dependent on humans to provide them with food and sites for roosting, loafing, and nesting. Pigeons are primarily grain and seed eaters and will subsist on spilled or improperly stored grain. The common pigeon was introduced into the United States as a domesticated bird, but many escaped and formed feral populations. Pigeon …

Waterfowl, Edward C. Cleary

Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage Handbook

The term waterfowl is properly applied only to ducks, geese, and swans. In North America, most waterfowl are migratory, flying long distances in the spring and fall between the summer breeding grounds and wintering areas. Waterfowl, as their name implies, are most often found near water. The food of individual waterfowl species ranges from fish to insects to plants in various combinations, depending on availability. Waterfowl are normally monogamous and solitary nesters. Goose problems in urban and suburban areas are primarily caused by giant Canada geese, which are probably the most adaptable of all waterfowl. In the United States, migratory …

House Sparrows, William D. Fitzwater

Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage Handbook

The house or English sparrow (Passer domesticus) is a brown, chunky bird about 5 3/4 inches (15 cm) long, and very common in human-made habitats. The house sparrow was first introduced in Brooklyn, New York, from England in 1850 and has spread throughout the continent. The house sparrow is found in nearly every habitat except dense forest, alpine, and desert environments. House sparrows are primarily granivorous. Breeding can occur in any month but is most common from March through August. House sparrows consume grains in fields and in storage. The house sparrow is afforded no legal protection by …

Crayfish, James F. Fowler, Wendell Lorio, Greg Lutz

Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage Handbook

Crayfish, also called crawfish, crawcrab, crab, stonecrab, crawdad, creekcrab, and other local names, are native to fresh waters on all continents except Africa, where they have been widely introduced. Most damage associated with crayfish is the result of crayfish burrowing in home lawns. Crayfish may be protected by law in some states.

Frogs And Toads, Paul E. Moler

Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage Handbook

Frogs and toads are amphibians with four legs and no tail. At least 85 species of frogs are native to the United States, and there are three well-established exotic species. Frogs occur in almost all nonmarine habitats. Most frogs have a two-phased life cycle, including an aquatic larval form (tadpole) and a terrestrial or semiaquatic adult form. Although some species spend most of their adult lives away from water, most frogs native to North America must return to water to lay eggs. The greatest potential for economic damage is at fish farms and hatcheries. Laws pertaining to frogs vary from …

Alligators (Alligator Mississippiensis), Allan R. Woodward, Dennis N. David

Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage Handbook

The American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) is the most common of two crocodilians native to the United States and is one of 22 crocodilian species worldwide. The American alligator is found in wetlands throughout the coastal plain of the southeastern United States. Alligators can be found in almost any type of fresh water, but population densities are greatest in wetlands with an abundant food supply and adjacent marsh habitat for nesting. Alligators are exclusively carnivorous and prey upon whatever creatures are most available. Alligators are ectothermic — they rely on external sources of heat to maintain body temperature. Damage …

Salamanders , James L. Byford

Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage Handbook

Salamanders (Ambystoma tigrinumare) are smooth-skinned amphibians with no skin covering such as scales, hair, or feathers. There are several dozen kinds of salamanders found in the United States, but most occur only in parts of one or several states. Salamanders depend on water and moisture for their existence. All salamanders are predators. Salamanders generally are active when there is no sunshine—at night or on cloudy, rainy days. Salamanders do not cause damage to people or property.

Turtles, James F. Fowler, Jimmy L. Avery

Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage Handbook

Turtles ( Terrapene carolina) occur on all continents except Antarctica. Any permanent body of water is a potential home for turtles. Turtles are seldom a pest to people. Most turtles are not protected by state laws.

Nonpoisonous Snakes, James L. Byford

Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage Handbook

Of the many kinds of snakes (Pituophis melanoleucus) found in the United States, only the following are harmful: rattlesnakes, copperheads, cottonmouths, coral snakes, and sea snakes. Some species of nonpoisonous snakes occur throughout several states, but the majority have only limited ranges. Snakes are not very mobile, and even though some are fairly adaptable, most have specific habitat requirements. All snakes are predators, and the different species eat many different kinds of food. Snakes are specialized animals, having elongated bodies and no legs. A nonpoisonous snake bite has no venom and can do no more harm than frighten …

Specimen Labels, Scott E. Hygnstrom

Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage Handbook

This section contains specimen labels of various products used for controlling wildlife damage. Products included here were selected as examples of registered vertebrate pesticides. Space limitations make it impossible to include labels from every available product. Inclusion of trade names, proprietary products, or company names does not imply endorsement by the University of Nebraska Cooperative Extension, USDA-APHIS-Animal Damage Control, or the Great Plains Agricultural Council. Similarly, no discrimination is intended against products or companies not included. Since pesticide labels change frequently, be sure to obtain, read, and follow current label directions when using any pesticide. Check with appropriate federal and …

Rattlesnakes (Crotalus Viridis Viridis), Walter E. Howard

Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage Handbook

Rattlesnakes (Crotalus viridis viridis)are distinctly American serpents. There are 15 species of rattlesnakes in the United States and 25 in Mexico. Rattlesnakes are usually identified by their warning rattle — a hiss or buzz — made by the rattles at the tip of their tails. Rattlesnakes occur only in North and South America and range from sea level to perhaps 11,000 feet (over 3,000 m) in California and 14,000 feet (4,000 m) in Mexico, although they are not abundant at the higher elevations. Young or small species of rodents comprise the bulk of the food supply for most …

A River Ran Through It... : The Cultural Ecology Of The Santa Clara Valley Riparian Zone, Erin M. Reilly

Research Manuscript Series

This study addresses the nature of human interaction with the riparian environment in the Santa Clara Valley over time. This is not a new anthropological theme. Literature dates to 1863 The Earth as Modified by Human Action, by George P. Marsh); cultural ecologist Betty J Meggars stated: "The relationship- of culture to environment is one of the oldest problems in the science of anthropology ... "(Meggars, 1968:19); and, anthropologist Alfred Kroeber said: "no culture is wholly intelligible without reference to the nonculture, or so-called environmental factors with which it is in relation and which condition it "(Kroeber 1906:297).

Along these …

Building A Research Community For Outdoor Education (Preface), Anderson B. Young

Research in Outdoor Education

A preface to the journal "Research in Outdoor Education," volume 2 is presented by the author on behalf of the Coalition for Education in the Outdoors (CEO) Research Committee.

Outdoor Education Research: Implications For Social/Educational And Natural Resource Policy, Alan Ewert, Leo Mcavoy

Research in Outdoor Education

This paper discusses the relationships between outdoor education and public policy from the perspectives of natural resource management and social/educational systems. We present a historical and contempo­rary look at policy issues and conclude with recommendations on how the field of outdoor education can have a greater impact in the area of public policy.

(Keynote Presentation)

The Influence Of Outdoor Education On Curriculum Integration: A Case Study, Bert Horwood

Research in Outdoor Education

An ethnographic study of a high school program showed three factors from the outdoor component that enhanced curriculum integration: the inescapable consequences of students decisions in the outdoors, personal growth, and the sense of wonder experienced by students in their encounters with themselves and the natural world.

Front Matter, Coalition For Education In The Outdoors (Ceo)

Research in Outdoor Education

The Coalition for Education in the Outdoors initiated a Research Task Force in 1990 with the purpose of supporting the conduct of research in the field and the dissemination of the results. The symposium at Bradford Woods and these Proceedings offer evidence of the success of this task force. At the first symposium in 1992, there was general agreement that the symposium be a regular occurrence. The 1994 Symposium and these Proceedings are indicators of the Coalition's continued support of research in outdoor education. Information on future events will be available through the Coalition Office.

This article includes the Editors, …