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Articles 2011 - 2040 of 2906

Full-Text Articles in Physical Sciences and Mathematics

To Repair Or Not To Repair: Helping Ad Hoc Routing Protocols To Distinguish Mobility From Congestion, Qiuyi Duan, Roger Pack, Manoj Pandey, Lei Wang, Daniel Zappala May 2007

To Repair Or Not To Repair: Helping Ad Hoc Routing Protocols To Distinguish Mobility From Congestion, Qiuyi Duan, Roger Pack, Manoj Pandey, Lei Wang, Daniel Zappala

Faculty Publications

In this paper we consider the problem of distinguishing whether frame loss at the MAC layer has occurred due to mobility or congestion. Most ad hoc routing protocols make the faulty assumption that all frame loss means the destination node has moved, resulting in significant overhead as they initiate the repair of routes that have not been broken. We design a mobility detection algorithm, MDA, that properly detects the cause of a lost frame, then coordinates with the routing protocol so that it reacts properly. This approach dramatically reduces routing protocol overhead and significantly increases application throughput. We use a …


Anomalous Magnetic Field Dependence Of The T1 Spin Lifetime In A Lightly Doped Gaas Sample, John S. Colton, M. E. Heeb, P. Schroeder, A. Stokes, L. R. Wienkes, A. S. Bracker May 2007

Anomalous Magnetic Field Dependence Of The T1 Spin Lifetime In A Lightly Doped Gaas Sample, John S. Colton, M. E. Heeb, P. Schroeder, A. Stokes, L. R. Wienkes, A. S. Bracker

Faculty Publications

The T1 spin lifetime of a lightly doped n-type GaAs sample has been measured via time-resolved polarization spectroscopy under a number of temperature and magnetic field conditions. Lifetimes up to 19 μs have been measured. The magnetic field dependence of T1 shows a nonmonotonic behavior, where the spin lifetime first increases, then decreases, then increases again with field. The initial increase in T1 is understood to be due to correlation between electrons localized on donors. The decrease in T1 is likely due to phonon-related spin-orbit relaxation. The final increase in T1 with B indicates a suppression of the spin-orbit relaxation …


Manifold Sculpting, Michael S. Gashler Apr 2007

Manifold Sculpting, Michael S. Gashler

Theses and Dissertations

Manifold learning algorithms have been shown to be useful for many applications of numerical analysis. Unfortunately, existing algorithms often produce noisy results, do not scale well, and are unable to benefit from prior knowledge about the expected results. We propose a new algorithm that iteratively discovers manifolds by preserving the local structure among neighboring data points while scaling down the values in unwanted dimensions. This algorithm produces less noisy results than existing algorithms, and it scales better when the number of data points is much larger than the number of dimensions. Additionally, this algorithm is able to benefit from existing …


Coupling Down Converted Light Into Single Mode Fibers, David A. Niemi Apr 2007

Coupling Down Converted Light Into Single Mode Fibers, David A. Niemi

Theses and Dissertations

We investigate the influence of the pump and collection mode parameters on the collection efficiency of Type I down converted photons into single mode fibers. For best single and coincidence counting rates, we find that the mode sizes should be close to the same size and that the mode waists should be located near the down-conversion crystal. Larger collection waists give higher collection efficiencies, but lower singles counts.


Kinetic Studies Of 6-Halopurine Nucleoside In Snar Reactions; 6-(Azolyl, Alkylthio And Fluoro)-Purine Nucleosides As Substrates For Suzuki Reactions, Jiangqiong Liu Apr 2007

Kinetic Studies Of 6-Halopurine Nucleoside In Snar Reactions; 6-(Azolyl, Alkylthio And Fluoro)-Purine Nucleosides As Substrates For Suzuki Reactions, Jiangqiong Liu

Theses and Dissertations

In chapter 1, we describe development of a mild and efficient method for SNAr iodination of 6-chloropurine 2'-deoxynucleosides and nucleosides. Our studies demonstrate that 6-iodopurine nucleosides are excellent substrates for certain transition metal-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions. In chapter 2, we describe synthesis of protected 6-fluoro, 6-chloro, 6-bromo and 6-sulfonylpurine nucleosides. Comparisons among 6-fluoro-, 6-chloro-, 6-bromo, 6-iodo and 6-sulfonylpurine nucleosides for SNAr reactions with various N, O and S nucleophiles were investigated. Our results demonstrate that the 6-fluoropurine nucleoside is the best substrate for SNAr reactions among the four 6-halopurine nucleosides with oxygen, sulfur and aliphatic amine nucleophiles, and also with an …


Dna-Templated Nanomaterials, Hector Alejandro Becerril-Garcia Apr 2007

Dna-Templated Nanomaterials, Hector Alejandro Becerril-Garcia

Theses and Dissertations

Nanomaterials display interesting physical and chemical properties depending on their shape, size and composition. Self assembly is an intriguing route to producing nanomaterials with controllable compositions and morphologies. DNA has been used to guide the self assembly of materials, resulting in: (1) metal nanowires; (2) metal or semiconductor nanorods; (3) carbon nanotubes; and (4) semiconductor, metal or biological nanoparticles. My work expands the range of DNA templated nanomaterials and develops novel ways of using DNA to pattern nanostructures on surfaces. I have performed the first synthesis of silver nanorods on single stranded DNA, an attractive material for localizing DNA coupled …


Investigation Of Novel Microseparation Techniques, Yansheng Liu Apr 2007

Investigation Of Novel Microseparation Techniques, Yansheng Liu

Theses and Dissertations

Ultrahigh pressure liquid chromatography (UHPLC) makes it possible to use very small particles (< 2 µm) as packing materials to provide high column efficiencies. Results from a careful comparison of small porous and nonporous particles show that when the particle size is small enough (< 2 µm), both porous and nonporous particles give excellent performance, and the differences in column efficiencies between porous and nonporous particles become insignificant. Columns packed with bare diamond particles could separate small molecules, especially polar molecules, however, severe tailing occurred for less polar compounds. The polybutadiene coated diamond particles gave greater retention and better separation of small molecules compared to bare particles, although no improvement in column efficiency was observed. Changes in surface bonding of thermally hydrogenated diamond particles was achieved by chemical modification using various organic peroxides with or without reagents containing long carbon chain functional groups. It appears that the alkyl groups were attached onto the diamond surface with limited coverage. LC experiments did not demonstrate good separation; however, changes in LC behavior were observed. A repetitive solvent programming approach was successfully applied to the analysis of a continuous sample stream in microbore LC. Each analysis cycle consisted of three steps: pseudo-injection, elution and rinse. In the pseudo-injection step, elution with a non- or poor-eluting solvent produced a concentrated sample plug due to on-column focusing. Factors influencing peak symmetry, resolution and analysis cycle length were investigated. Quantitative analysis of a continuous sample stream is possible under certain operating conditions. Electric field gradient focusing (EFGF) devices with distributed resistor substrates could focus proteins in the separation channel, however, the focused bands were not stable, and the repeatability was poor due to the formation of bubbles and pH gradient in the separation channel. Both fiber-based and porous glass capillary-based planar EFGF devices with changing cross-sectional area (CCSA) channels were constructed and evaluated with the aid of a home-made scanning laser-induced fluorescence detection system. The fiber-based CCSA EFGF devices gave poorer performance compared with glass capillary based devices. Porous glass capillary-based EFGF devices could focus single proteins and separate mixtures of two to three proteins.


Hop-By-Hop Transport Control For Multi-Hop Wireless Networks, Daniel N. Scofield Apr 2007

Hop-By-Hop Transport Control For Multi-Hop Wireless Networks, Daniel N. Scofield

Theses and Dissertations

TCP can perform poorly in multi-hop wireless networks due to problems with contention and poor feedback from end-to-end control algorithms. This thesis explores the design of a hop-by-hop transport protocol (HxH). By allowing intermediate nodes to actively participate, the protocol can respond more quickly to changing network conditions and exploit the unique characteristics of wireless networks. Results indicate that hop-by-hop transport can achieve throughput rates that are double those of TCP, depending on the speed of the wireless links.


T-Spline Simplification, David L. Cardon Apr 2007

T-Spline Simplification, David L. Cardon

Theses and Dissertations

This work focuses on generating approximations of complex T-spline surfaces with similar but less complex T-splines. Two approaches to simplifying T-splines are proposed: a bottom-up approach that iteratively refines an over-simple T-spline to approximate a complex one, and a top-down approach that evaluates existing control points for removal in producing an approximations. This thesis develops and compares the two simplification methods, determining the simplification tasks to which each is best suited. In addition, this thesis documents supporting developments made to T-spline research as simplification was developed.


Hikorocodium Endo Is Not An Alga But An Inozoid Sponge, J. Keith Rigby, Baba Senowbari-Daryan Apr 2007

Hikorocodium Endo Is Not An Alga But An Inozoid Sponge, J. Keith Rigby, Baba Senowbari-Daryan

Faculty Publications

The genus Hikorocodium, with the type species Hikorocodium elegantae from the Permian of Japan, was described originally as a codiacean alga by Endo. It is not a codiacean alga but an inozoid sponge of the family Preperonidellidae. Several fossils described later by Endo and other authors as H. elegantae should be assigned to different inozoid sponge taxa. Specimens of H. fertiliz, described by Endo from the Jurassic of Japan, are also sponge fragments. The taxonomic positions of H. transversum Endo and H. kuramotoi Nakamura, as sponges or


The Role Of Phosducin-Like Protein As A Co-Chaperone With The Cytosolic Chaperonin Complex In Assembly Of The G Protein Βγ Subunit Dimer, Paul Jayson Ludtke Mar 2007

The Role Of Phosducin-Like Protein As A Co-Chaperone With The Cytosolic Chaperonin Complex In Assembly Of The G Protein Βγ Subunit Dimer, Paul Jayson Ludtke

Theses and Dissertations

Phosducin-like protein (PhLP) has been shown to interact with the cytosolic chaperonin containing TCP-1 (CCT), and the βγ subunit dimer of heterotrimeric G proteins (Gβγ). Here we provide details obtained from cryo-electron microscopic and biochemical studies on the structure of the complex between the cytosolic chaperonin CCT and PhLP. Binding of PhLP to CCT occurs through only one of the two chaperonin rings, making multiple contacts with CCT through both its N- and C-terminal domains. In addition, we show that PhLP acts as a co-chaperonin along with CCT in mediating the assembly of the G protein βγ subunit and that …


The Niemann-Pick Type C2 Protein Loads Isoglobotrihexosylceramide Onto Cd1d Molecules And Contributes To The Thymic Selection Of Nkt Cells, Paul B. Savage, Nicolas Schrantz, Yuval Sagiv, Yang Liu, Albert Bendelac, Luc Teyton Mar 2007

The Niemann-Pick Type C2 Protein Loads Isoglobotrihexosylceramide Onto Cd1d Molecules And Contributes To The Thymic Selection Of Nkt Cells, Paul B. Savage, Nicolas Schrantz, Yuval Sagiv, Yang Liu, Albert Bendelac, Luc Teyton

Faculty Publications

The Niemann-Pick type C2 (NPC2) protein is a small, soluble, lysosomal protein important for cholesterol and sphingolipid transport in the lysosome. The immunological phenotype of NPC2-deficient mice was limited to an impaired thymic selection of Valpha 14 natural killer T cells (NKT cells) and a subsequent reduction of NKT cells in the periphery. The remaining NKT cells failed to produce measurable quantities of interferon-gamma in vivo and in vitro after activation with alpha-galactosylceramide. In addition, thymocytes and splenocytes from NPC2-deficient mice were poor presenters of endogenous and exogenous lipids to CD1d-restricted Valpha 14 hybridoma cells. Importantly, we determined that similar …


On-The-Fly Dynamic Dead Variable Analysis, Joel P. Self Mar 2007

On-The-Fly Dynamic Dead Variable Analysis, Joel P. Self

Theses and Dissertations

State explosion in model checking continues to be the primary obstacle to widespread use of software model checking. The large input ranges of variables used in software is the main cause of state explosion. As software grows in size and complexity the problem only becomes worse. As such, model checking research into data abstraction as a way of mitigating state explosion has become more and more important. Data abstractions aim to reduce the effect of large input ranges. This work focuses on a static program analysis technique called dead variable analysis. The goal of dead variable analysis is to discover …


Separate And Joint Analysis Of Longitudinal And Survival Data, Deepthi Rajeev Mar 2007

Separate And Joint Analysis Of Longitudinal And Survival Data, Deepthi Rajeev

Theses and Dissertations

Chemotherapy is a method used to treat cancer but it has a number of side-effects. Research conducted by the Department of Chemical Engineering at BYU involves a new method of administering chemotherapy using ultrasound waves and water-soluble capsules. The goal is to reduce the side-effects by localizing the delivery of the medication. As part of this research, a two-factor experiment was conducted on rats to test if the water-soluble capsules and ultrasound waves by themselves have an effect on tumor growth or patient survival. Our project emphasizes the usage of Bayesian Hierarchical Models and Win-BUGS to jointly model the survival …


A Simulation-Based Approach For Evaluating Gene Expression Analyses, Carly Ruth Pendleton Mar 2007

A Simulation-Based Approach For Evaluating Gene Expression Analyses, Carly Ruth Pendleton

Theses and Dissertations

Microarrays enable biologists to measure differences in gene expression in thousands of genes simultaneously. The data produced by microarrays present a statistical challenge, one which has been met both by new modifications of existing methods and by completely new approaches. One of the difficulties with a new approach to microarray analysis is validating the method's power and sensitivity. A simulation study could provide such validation by simulating gene expression data and investigating the method's response to changes in the data; however, due to the complex dependencies and interactions found in gene expression data, such a simulation would be complicated and …


Solute Chemistry And Isotopic Investigation Of The Groundwater Flow Paths In Honey Lake Basin, Lassen County, California And Washoe County, Nevada, Rachel M. Henderson Mar 2007

Solute Chemistry And Isotopic Investigation Of The Groundwater Flow Paths In Honey Lake Basin, Lassen County, California And Washoe County, Nevada, Rachel M. Henderson

Theses and Dissertations

Honey Lake Basin is a large, hydrologically closed valley with two playa lakes that are separated by a low elevation sill. The Basin has a complex hydrogeologic setting, with numerous groundwater flow paths that interact with surface waters and three basic aquifers; shallow, deep, and geothermal. Thirteen flow paths; eleven cold and two thermal, are identified and the geochemical evolution of those paths are characterized by integrating solute chemistry and isotopic data. The chemical flow paths include recharge in either granitoid or volcanic terrains in the Sierra Nevada Range and the Modoc Plateau, respectively. The groundwater then flows through alluvial …


Pre-Historic Landslides On The Southeast Flank Of The Uinta Mountains, Utah: Character And Causes Of Slope Failure, Todd D. Bradfield Mar 2007

Pre-Historic Landslides On The Southeast Flank Of The Uinta Mountains, Utah: Character And Causes Of Slope Failure, Todd D. Bradfield

Theses and Dissertations

More than 100 landslides have been mapped along the southeast flank of the Uinta Mountains. Large landslide deposits are up to 4.6 kilometers long and have an area of approximately 5-9 km². Landslide types include multiple and successive rock slumps, debris slumps and debris flows. Most landslides have a main head scarp in the Bishop Conglomerate and the large landslides have many minor scarps. Multiple slump blocks are manifest by repeated transverse ridges and trenches in the head area of some landslides. Most body and toe areas are deeply incised by gully erosion (up to 91 meters deep) and drainages …


Structural Analysis Of Rock Canyon Near Provo, Utah, Laura Cardon Wald Mar 2007

Structural Analysis Of Rock Canyon Near Provo, Utah, Laura Cardon Wald

Theses and Dissertations

A detailed structural study of Rock Canyon (near Provo, Utah) provides insight into Wasatch Range tectonics and fold-thrust belt kinematics. Excellent exposures along the E-W trending canyon allow the use of digital photography in conjunction with traditional field methods for a thorough analysis of Rock Canyon's structural features. Detailed photomontages and geometric and kinematic analyses of some structural features help to pinpoint deformation mechanisms active during the canyon's tectonic history. Large-scale images and these structural data are synthesized in a balanced cross section, which is used to reconstruct the structural evolution of this portion of the range. Projection of surficial …


The Origins Of Four Paterae Of Malea Planum, Mars, Susan K. Larson Mar 2007

The Origins Of Four Paterae Of Malea Planum, Mars, Susan K. Larson

Theses and Dissertations

Malea Planum is a volcanic plain on the southern rim of Hellas Planitia, the largest impact basin on Mars. Four large circular structures on Malea Planum have traditionally been identified as paterae, or low relief, central vent volcanoes (Plescia and Saunders, 1979). A geologic map was constructed and new crater counts made to explore the ages and origins of the paterae. Amphitrites and Peneus Paterae have radial patterns of wrinkle ridges on their flanks and distinct summit calderas (95 km and 130 km across) with arcuate bounding scarps. In contrast, Malea and Pityusa Paterae are broad depressions with diameters greater …


Improving Machine Learning Through Oracle Learning, Joshua Ephraim Menke Mar 2007

Improving Machine Learning Through Oracle Learning, Joshua Ephraim Menke

Theses and Dissertations

The following dissertation presents a new paradigm for improving the training of machine learning algorithms, oracle learning. The main idea in oracle learning is that instead of training directly on a set of data, a learning model is trained to approximate a given oracle's behavior on a set of data. This can be beneficial in situations where it is easier to obtain an oracle than it is to use it at application time. It is shown that oracle learning can be applied to more effectively reduce the size of artificial neural networks, to more efficiently take advantage of domain experts …


Ria: An Rf Interference Avoidance Algorithm For Heterogeneous Wireless Networks, Daniel P. Delorey, Qiuyi Duan, Charles D. Knutson, Manoj Pandey, Lei Wang, Ryan W. Woodings, Daniel Zappala Mar 2007

Ria: An Rf Interference Avoidance Algorithm For Heterogeneous Wireless Networks, Daniel P. Delorey, Qiuyi Duan, Charles D. Knutson, Manoj Pandey, Lei Wang, Ryan W. Woodings, Daniel Zappala

Faculty Publications

Devices with multiple wireless interfaces are becoming increasingly popular. We envision that these devices will become the building block for future mesh networks, providing seamless connectivity across a range of heterogeneous devices. Although these devices typically implement frequency sharing, using either Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) or Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS), they may still interfere with one another. In this paper we provide a novel Radio Interference Avoidance (RIA) algorithm that solves the problem of interference between IEEE 802.11 and Bluetooth. We then extend this algorithm to other types of DSSS and FHSS combinations. Though the algorithm is limited …


Obstacle Annotation By Demonstration, Michael David Clement Mar 2007

Obstacle Annotation By Demonstration, Michael David Clement

Theses and Dissertations

By observing human driving with a “digital head" (combined video camera and accelerometers) and taking a few hand annotations, we can automatically annotate regions in a robot's field of view that should be interpreted as obstacles to be avoided. This is accomplished by detecting the movement for a given frame in a video. Some hand annotations of video frames are necessary and they are used to create Probability Grids. Using the movement data and the Probability Grids, it is possible to annotate large amounts of video data quickly in an automated system.


Pyridinium Bis-Retinoids: Extraction, Synthesis, And Folate Coupling, Mary Allison Alvarez Mar 2007

Pyridinium Bis-Retinoids: Extraction, Synthesis, And Folate Coupling, Mary Allison Alvarez

Theses and Dissertations

This thesis is divided into two parts.Part I describes the organic extraction, separation, and liquid chromatographic-mass spectrometric analysis of chromophores from human and bovine retinal pigment epithelium. Flurorophores in the retinal pigment epithelium have been implicated in age related macular degeneration. In addition, the synthesis and characterization of a number of bis-retinoid type compounds that may potentially be found in such extracts, or that may be used for insight into pyridinium bis-retinoid reactivity, was accomplished.Part II describes a study of pyridinium bis-retinoid-folic acid coupling with respect to linker type, linker length, and nature of the linkage. Folic acid has been …


Grating Lobe Reduction In Transducer Arrays Through Structural Filtering Of Supercritical Plates, Brian E. Anderson, Stephen A. Hambric, Jack W. Hughes Mar 2007

Grating Lobe Reduction In Transducer Arrays Through Structural Filtering Of Supercritical Plates, Brian E. Anderson, Stephen A. Hambric, Jack W. Hughes

Faculty Publications

The effect of placing a structural acoustic filter between water and the transducer elements of an array to help reduce undesirable grating lobes is investigated. A supercritical plate is mounted to transducer elements with a thin decoupling polyurethane layer between the transducers and the plate. The plate acts as a radiation/incidence angle filter to pass energy at angles near normal incidence, but suppress energy at large incidence angles. Grating lobe reduction is achieved at the expense of limiting the available steering of the main lobe. Within this steer angle limitation, the main lobe can be steered as normal while the …


The Effect Of Birth Order On Infant Injury, Heather L. Van Duker Mar 2007

The Effect Of Birth Order On Infant Injury, Heather L. Van Duker

Theses and Dissertations

Pediatric injury is both common and expensive. Finding ways to prevent pediatric injury is a major public health concern. Many studies have investigated various aspects of pediatric injury, and some suggest that birth order may be an important risk factor for pediatric injury. This study further examined the relationship of birth order with pediatric injury, specifically studying the association of birth order with emergency department-attended infant injury while adjusting for other important family and individual covariates. Data for analysis included Utah birth certificate, death certificate, and hospital emergency department datasets, which were probabilistically linked to obtain complete demographic and injury …


Development Of An H-Alpha Index For The Detection Of Pms Candidates In Young Open Clusters, Liberty Rae Evanko Mar 2007

Development Of An H-Alpha Index For The Detection Of Pms Candidates In Young Open Clusters, Liberty Rae Evanko

Theses and Dissertations

One phase of formation of medium- and low-mass stars is the optically visible phase known as the pre-main-sequence or PMS phase. In order to further the understanding of this phase, more of these PMS objects need to be identified and classified. Previous techniques have used photometry to identify possible PMS objects by their characteristic Hα emission. Once identified these objects can be studied spectroscopically yielding complete PMS classification. This study develops a method to locate these emission objects that overcomes two limitations of previous techniques. The first limitation is the need for the creation of reddening maps. It is eliminated …


Observational Studies Of Software Engineering Using Data From Software Repositories, Daniel Pierce Delorey Mar 2007

Observational Studies Of Software Engineering Using Data From Software Repositories, Daniel Pierce Delorey

Theses and Dissertations

Data for empirical studies of software engineering can be difficult to obtain. Extrapolations from small controlled experiments to large development environments are tenuous and observation tends to change the behavior of the subjects. In this thesis we propose the use of data gathered from software repositories in observational studies of software engineering. We present tools we have developed to extract data from CVS repositories and the SourceForge Research Archive. We use these tools to gather data from 9,999 Open Source projects. By analyzing these data we are able to provide insights into the structure of Open Source projects. For example, …


Stylized Hatching For 3d Animation, Trent Fielding Crow Mar 2007

Stylized Hatching For 3d Animation, Trent Fielding Crow

Theses and Dissertations

Much research has been done in creating non-photorealistic renderings of objects that mimic the look of hand-made drawings by traditional artists. This thesis extends work in this area by presenting an NPR hatching method that can be applied to 3D animated films to help them feel more hand drawn. In contrast to most other NPR methods, this method preserves the 3D lighting and effects of the film that make it interesting to watch. This process includes a procedural algorithm to create a hatching pattern that can be easily integrated into any film's pipeline that uses Renderman. In addition, we create …


Graphical And Bayesian Analysis Of Unbalanced Patient Management Data, Emily Stewart Righter Mar 2007

Graphical And Bayesian Analysis Of Unbalanced Patient Management Data, Emily Stewart Righter

Theses and Dissertations

The International Normalizing Ratio (INR) measures the speed at which blood clots. Healthy people have an INR of about one. Some people are at greater risk of blood clots and their physician prescribes a target INR range, generally 2-3. The farther a patient is above or below their prescribed range, the more dangerous their situation. A variety of point-of-care (POC) devices has been developed to monitor patients. The purpose of this research was to develop innovative graphics to help describe a highly unbalanced dataset and to carry out Bayesian analyses to determine which of five devices best manages patients. An …


Bounds And Conditions: A Kolob In Our Solar System?, David D. Allred Mar 2007

Bounds And Conditions: A Kolob In Our Solar System?, David D. Allred

Faculty Publications

In 2003, Dialogue ran adjacent essays by two scientists, David Tolman and David Allred. The two Davids had been students together at Princeton, attending the same student ward. Decades after Princeton, Tolman had left Mormonism and Allred had stayed. Their essays are a fascinating juxtaposition. In the course of his piece, David Allred ventured for a few paragraphs into a discussion of the planet Jupiter and its role as a governor and protector in our solar system—a type of Kolob. Although the other author dismissed the topic as “fanciful physics,” my own interest was piqued. I asked Dr. Allred, who …