Open Access. Powered by Scholars. Published by Universities.®

Physical Sciences and Mathematics Commons

Open Access. Powered by Scholars. Published by Universities.®

Faculty of Informatics - Papers (Archive)

Discipline
Keyword
Publication Year

Articles 1081 - 1110 of 2013

Full-Text Articles in Physical Sciences and Mathematics

Force Distribution For Double-Walled Carbon Nanotubes, Duangkamon Baowan, James M. Hill Jan 2006

Force Distribution For Double-Walled Carbon Nanotubes, Duangkamon Baowan, James M. Hill

Faculty of Informatics - Papers (Archive)

Advances in technology have led to the creation of many nano-scale devices and carbon nanotubes are representative materials to construct these devices. Double-walled carbon nanotubes with the inner tube oscillating can be used as gigahertz oscillators and form the basis of possible nano-electronic devices. Such gigahertz oscillating devices made from carbon nanotubes might be instrumental in the micro-computer industry, which is predominantly based on electron transport phenomena. There are many experiments and molecular dynamics simulations which show that a wave is generated on the outer cylinder by the oscillation of the carbon nanotubes and that the frequency of this wave …


Arbitrary Ratio Sample Rate Conversion Using B-Spline Interpolation For Software Defined Radio, Xiaojing Huang Jan 2006

Arbitrary Ratio Sample Rate Conversion Using B-Spline Interpolation For Software Defined Radio, Xiaojing Huang

Faculty of Informatics - Papers (Archive)

Arbitrary ratio sampling rate conversion (SRC) structure using B-spline interpolation is proposed for software defined radio (SDR) in this paper. By combining SRC with SDR’s transmitter/receiver filter, the constraint on SRC reconstruction filter can be relaxed, and an overall computational reduction can be achieved. The mixed-width B-spline is introduced so that both antiimaging and anti-aliasing requirements for SRC are satisfied. The passband droop introduced by the B-spline interpolation is compensated by a linear phase digital filter incorporated in the SRC structure so that the overall frequency response approaches the desired frequency response of the SDR’s transmitter/receiver filter. To make the …


Facial Expression Recognition For Multiplayer Online Games, Ce Zhan, Wanqing Li, Philip O. Ogunbona, Farzad Safaei Jan 2006

Facial Expression Recognition For Multiplayer Online Games, Ce Zhan, Wanqing Li, Philip O. Ogunbona, Farzad Safaei

Faculty of Informatics - Papers (Archive)

The Multiplayer Online Game (MOG) becomes more popular than any other types of computer games for its collaboration, communication and interaction ability. However, compared with the ordinary human communication, the MOG still has many limitations, especially in communication using facial expressions. Although detailed facial animation has already been achieved in a number of MOGs, players have to use text commands to control avatars expressions. In this paper, we briefly review the state of the art in facial expression recognition and propose an automatic expression recognition system that can be integrated into a MOG to control the avatar’s facial expressions. We …


Trust Negotiation With Trust Parameters, Fuchun Guo, Zhide Chen, Yi Mu Jan 2006

Trust Negotiation With Trust Parameters, Fuchun Guo, Zhide Chen, Yi Mu

Faculty of Informatics - Papers (Archive)

The notion of hidden credentials can be applied to protection of sensitive credentials, resources and policies in trust negotiation. It allows the server to encrypt a resource so that only the client with the correct credentials can decrypt it. The existing scheme of hidden credentials requires that the server grant access to the encrypted resource directly to the client during the negotiation without knowing whether or not the client can decrypt it. It would be a burden if the resources were very large. We found that when the server grants access to services rather than resources, the existing hidden credentials …


An Agent-Based Peer-To-Peer Grid Computing Architecture, Jia Tang, Minjie Zhang Jan 2006

An Agent-Based Peer-To-Peer Grid Computing Architecture, Jia Tang, Minjie Zhang

Faculty of Informatics - Papers (Archive)

The conventional computing Grid has developed a service oriented computing architecture with a superlocal resource management and scheduling strategy. This architecture is limited in modeling computer systems with highly dynamic and autonomous computing resources due to its server-based computing model. The super-local resource management and scheduling strategy also limits the utilization of the computing resources. In this paper, we propose a multi-agent based Peer-to-Peer Grid computing architecture. This novel architecture solves the above issues, while provides reasonable compatibility and interoperability with the conventional Grid systems and clients. The main characteristics of this architecture are highlighted by its promising performance and …


An Ontology-Based Approach For Expert And Knowledge Mining In Complex Multi-Agent Systems, Minjie Zhang, Xijin Tang, Quan Bai, Jifa Gu Jan 2006

An Ontology-Based Approach For Expert And Knowledge Mining In Complex Multi-Agent Systems, Minjie Zhang, Xijin Tang, Quan Bai, Jifa Gu

Faculty of Informatics - Papers (Archive)

Complex problems require diverse expertise and multiple techniques to solve. In order to solve such problems, complex multi-agent systems include numbers of heterogeneous agents, which may include both of human experts and autonomous agents, to work together toward some complex problems. Most complex multi-agent systems are working in open domains. Due to heterogeneities and dynamic working environments, expertise and capabilities of agents might not be well estimated and presented in the system. Therefore, how to discover useful knowledge from human and autonomous experts, make more accurate estimation for experts' capabilities and to find out suitable expert(s) to solve incoming problems …


Optimization Of Query Processing Through Constrained Vertical Partitioning Of Relational Tables, Zhenjie Liu, Janusz R. Getta Jan 2006

Optimization Of Query Processing Through Constrained Vertical Partitioning Of Relational Tables, Zhenjie Liu, Janusz R. Getta

Faculty of Informatics - Papers (Archive)

Vertical partitioning is an effective way of improving performance in the database systems where a significant percentage of query processing time is spent on the full scans of relational tables. Vertical partitioning provides even more compelling performance gains when it is combined with the controlled replication of data in the environments where the processing of queries dominates the data manipulations. This paper proposes a new algorithm that finds a suboptimal vertical partitioning of relational tables under a constraint that certain level of redundancies is acceptable in a database. TIle algorithm is based on a new cost model, which precisely estimates …


Application Of Snapshot Isolation Protocol To Concurrent Processing Of Long Transactions, Yang Yang, Janusz R. Getta Jan 2006

Application Of Snapshot Isolation Protocol To Concurrent Processing Of Long Transactions, Yang Yang, Janusz R. Getta

Faculty of Informatics - Papers (Archive)

Snapshot Isolation (SI) protocol is a database transaction processing algorithm used by some of commercial database systems to manage the concurrent executions of database transactions. SI protocol is a special case of multi-version algorithm. It avoids many of the anomalies typical for the concurrent processing of database transactions. Unfortunately, SI protocol does not guarantee correct serialization of database transactions under certain conditions. A recent work [3] proposed a formal solution, which characterizes the correctness of transactions running under SI protocoL However, the protocol is inefficient when it comes to processing long transactions. In this paper, we show that the limitations …


Dissemination Of Dynamic Multimedia Content In Networked Virtual Environments, Tolga Bektas, Osman Oguz, Farzad Safaei, Iradj Ouveysi Jan 2006

Dissemination Of Dynamic Multimedia Content In Networked Virtual Environments, Tolga Bektas, Osman Oguz, Farzad Safaei, Iradj Ouveysi

Faculty of Informatics - Papers (Archive)

This paper aims to design an infrastructure for distribution of dynamic multimedia objects in a Networked Virtual Environment (NVE) based on a distributed proxy architecture. Dynamic objects (such as audio, video and images) are generated by the users on-the-fly, are often short lived and must be disseminated to others in their area of interest while the application is running. It is expected that a significant portion of network traffic for future NVE applications will be due to these objects. However, because of the upstream bandwidth constraints of clients, a peer-to-peer model for dissemination of these objects is unlikely to be …


Improving Object Cache Performance Through Selective Placement, Saied Hosseini-Khayat Jan 2006

Improving Object Cache Performance Through Selective Placement, Saied Hosseini-Khayat

Faculty of Informatics - Papers (Archive)

Distributed systems greatly benefit from caching. Caching data objects of variable size and cost poses interesting questions that have been researched for the past ten years. As a result, a few good algorithms have come to the fore. These algorithms make effective decisions in selecting cache objects for removal. However, they make no decision about the suitability of a new object for placement into the cache. We show that “selective placement” can add further improvement to these algorithms when a request pattern consists of frequent references to a working set of objects interspersed with isolated references to less popular objects. …


Generic Scheduling Framework And Algorithm For Time-Varying Wireless Networks, Gengfa Fang, Yi Sun, Jihua Zhou, Jinglin Shi, Eryk Dutkiewicz Jan 2006

Generic Scheduling Framework And Algorithm For Time-Varying Wireless Networks, Gengfa Fang, Yi Sun, Jihua Zhou, Jinglin Shi, Eryk Dutkiewicz

Faculty of Informatics - Papers (Archive)

In this paper, the problem of scheduling multiple users sharing a time varying wireless channel is studied, in networks such as in 3G CDMA and IEEE 802.16. We propose a new generic wireless packet scheduling framework (WPSF), which takes into account not only the quality of service (QoS) requirements but also the wireless resource consumed. The framework is generic in the sense that it can be used with different resource constraints and QoS requirements depending on the traffic flow types. Subsequently, based on this framework a minimum rate and channel aware (MRCA) scheduling algorithm is presented. MRCA attempts to greedily …


Towards A Profound Sense Of Professionalism - Teaching Ethics To It And Business University Students, Ghassan Al Qaimari, Stephen D. Samuel, Zeenath Khan Jan 2006

Towards A Profound Sense Of Professionalism - Teaching Ethics To It And Business University Students, Ghassan Al Qaimari, Stephen D. Samuel, Zeenath Khan

Faculty of Informatics - Papers (Archive)

The boom in technology has taken over every sector of the private and public life. From hospitals to banks, military to schools and even stores, all indulge in the use of some form of technology. A by-product of this boom has been the immense amount of data that is divulged to strangers every single day. So how do customers of these services know that the people, who are serving them and taking down their personal data at a daily basis, have the sense of professionalism to ensure privacy and security? How do organizations ensure they are hiring the people with …


Mindful It Adoption: Making The Right Strategic Decisions By Knowing Why And How To Adopt Enterprise Systems?, Valerie A. Baker, Tim Coltman Jan 2006

Mindful It Adoption: Making The Right Strategic Decisions By Knowing Why And How To Adopt Enterprise Systems?, Valerie A. Baker, Tim Coltman

Faculty of Informatics - Papers (Archive)

Corporate investment in enterprise level IT systems has been characterised by high rates of failure. The paper presents a knowledge based perspective to examine how firms adopt and implement enterprise systems in order to better understand how organisations can achieve reliable outcomes from such investments. The case presented explores the key decision stages of a major ERP investment, focusing on the strategic reasoning behind each decision. Particular attention is directed to the relationship between adoption know-why and implementation know-how to assess whether managers have been mindful or mindless in their investment decisions.


Mathematical Analysis Of Self-Heating In Compost Piles, Harvinder S. Sidhu, Mark I. Nelson, Nadeem Ansari, Xiao Dong Chen Jan 2006

Mathematical Analysis Of Self-Heating In Compost Piles, Harvinder S. Sidhu, Mark I. Nelson, Nadeem Ansari, Xiao Dong Chen

Faculty of Informatics - Papers (Archive)

We model the increase in temperature in compost piles or landfill sites due to micro-organisms undergoing exothermic reactions. The model incorporates the heat release due to biological activity within the pile and the heat release due to the oxidation of cellulosic materials. The heat release rate due to biological activity is modelled by a function which is a monotonic increasing function of temperature over a particular range and followed by a monotone decreasing function of temperature. This functionality represents the fact that micro-organisms die or become dormant at high temperatures. The heat release due to the oxidation reaction is modelled …


Overlay Multicasting Of Real-Time Streams In Virtual Environments, Mehran Dowlatshahi, Farzad Safaei Jan 2006

Overlay Multicasting Of Real-Time Streams In Virtual Environments, Mehran Dowlatshahi, Farzad Safaei

Faculty of Informatics - Papers (Archive)

Multicasting of real-time streams (voice, video, etc.) for interactive communication in networked virtual environments (V.E.) is becoming an increasingly important service. Here as an example characteristics of interactive voice scenes for participants in a V.E. are presented. Proxy based overlay multicasting of real-time streams is a candidate architecture for this type of service. Here we propose a scheme for angular clustering of destination proxies in multi dimensional network geometric spaces as the core algorithm for construction of efficient overlay multicast trees. We show that using the proposed angular clustering scheme it is possible to construct source rooted overlay trees with …


Secure Data Transmission Using Quibits, Iman Marvian, Saied Hosseini-Khayat Jan 2006

Secure Data Transmission Using Quibits, Iman Marvian, Saied Hosseini-Khayat

Faculty of Informatics - Papers (Archive)

A quantum protocol for secure transmission of data using qubits is presented. This protocol sends one qubit in a round-trip to transmit one bit of data. The protocol offers an improvement over the BB84 QKD protocol. BB84, in conjunction with one-time pad encryption, has been shown to be unconditionally secure. However its security relies on the assumption that the qubit source device does not emit multiple replicas of the same qubit for each transmitted bit. If this happens a multi-qubit emission attack can be launched. In addition, BB84 cannot be used to send predetermined bit strings as it generates a …


Scarcely Populated Uwb-Ir Systems With Interleaved Coding-Modulation On Multipath Fading Channels, Michal M. Pietrzyk, Keni Popovski, Tadeusz A. Wysocki, Beata J. Wysocki, Jos H. Weber Jan 2006

Scarcely Populated Uwb-Ir Systems With Interleaved Coding-Modulation On Multipath Fading Channels, Michal M. Pietrzyk, Keni Popovski, Tadeusz A. Wysocki, Beata J. Wysocki, Jos H. Weber

Faculty of Informatics - Papers (Archive)

Interleaved coding-modulation (ICM) is a recently proposed method for ultra-wideband impulse radio (UWB-IR) systems. ICM exploits the concept of chip interleaving, allowing to alleviate the problem of inter-symbol and inter-pulse interference commonly present in high data rate UWB-IR systems. In this paper, previous work on ICM is extended to scarcely populated multi-user scenarios. A novel design of a deterministic chip interleaver based on time-hopping hyperbolic congruence sequences is proposed. Furthermore, the main parameters of the random and hyperbolic interleavers are reviewed. The obtained results indicate that the proposed type of interleaver yields similar performance to random interleavers but with the …


Sava: A Novel Self-Adaptive Vertical Handoff Algorithm For Heterogeous Wireless Networks, Min Liu, Zhong-Cheng Li, Xiao-Bing Guo, Eryk Dutkiewicz, Ming-Hui Wang Jan 2006

Sava: A Novel Self-Adaptive Vertical Handoff Algorithm For Heterogeous Wireless Networks, Min Liu, Zhong-Cheng Li, Xiao-Bing Guo, Eryk Dutkiewicz, Ming-Hui Wang

Faculty of Informatics - Papers (Archive)

The next generation wireless networking (4G) is envisioned as a convergence of different wireless access technologies with diverse levels of performance. Vertical handoff (VHO) is the basic requirement for convergence of different access technologies and has received tremendous attention from the academia and industry all over the world. During the VHO procedure, handoff decision is the most important step that affects the normal working of communication. In this paper, we propose a novel vertical handoff decision algorithm, self- adaptive VHO algorithm (SAVA), and compare its performance with conventional algorithms. SAVA synthetically considers the long term movement region and short term …


Performance Evaluation Of Vertical Handoff Decision Algorithms In Heterogeneous Wireless Networks, Min Liu, Zhong-Cheng Li, Xiao-Bing Guo, Eryk Dutkiewicz, De-Kui Zhang Jan 2006

Performance Evaluation Of Vertical Handoff Decision Algorithms In Heterogeneous Wireless Networks, Min Liu, Zhong-Cheng Li, Xiao-Bing Guo, Eryk Dutkiewicz, De-Kui Zhang

Faculty of Informatics - Papers (Archive)

In recent years, many research works have focused on vertical handoff (VHO) decision algorithms. However, evaluation scenarios in different papers are often quite different and there is no consensus on how to evaluate performance of VHO algorithms. In this paper, we address this important issue by proposing an approach for systematic and thorough performance evaluation of VHO algorithms. Firstly we define the evaluation criteria for VHO with two metrics: matching ratio and average ping-pong number. Subsequently we analyze the general movement characteristics of mobile hosts and identify a set of novel performance evaluation models for VHO algorithms. Equipped with these …


Mathematical Modelling For A C60 Carbon Nanotube Oscillator, Barry J. Cox, Ngamta Thamwattana, James M. Hill Jan 2006

Mathematical Modelling For A C60 Carbon Nanotube Oscillator, Barry J. Cox, Ngamta Thamwattana, James M. Hill

Faculty of Informatics - Papers (Archive)

The discovery of fullerenes C60 and carbon nanotubes has created an enormous impact on nanotechnology. Because of their unique mechanical and electronic properties, such as low weight, high strength, flexibility and thermal stability, fullerenes C60 and carbon nanotubes are of considerable interest to researchers from many scientific areas. One problem that has attracted much attention is the creation of gigahertz oscillators. While there are difficulties for micromechanical oscillators, or resonators, to reach a frequency in the gigahertz range, it is possible for nanomechanical systems to achieve this. A number of studies have found that the sliding of the …


A System For The 3d Reconstruction Of The Human Face Using The Structured Light Approach, Dean Mcguire, Prashan Premaratne Jan 2006

A System For The 3d Reconstruction Of The Human Face Using The Structured Light Approach, Dean Mcguire, Prashan Premaratne

Faculty of Informatics - Papers (Archive)

This paper will describe a computer vision system under development with the aim of use in robust facial recognition applications. The system employs the structured light approach to solve the correspondence problem. The system has been designed with ease of use in mind with calibration procedures designed to be simple enough to be carried out without the use of precision measuring equipment, but robust enough to provide good quality 3D reconstructions. The hardware in use is of consumer grade and is being used in an unmodified form. Early reconstructions of faces based on the projection of a striped pattern have …


Wfms-Based Data Integration For E-Learning, Jianming Yong, Jun Yan, Xiaodi Huang Jan 2006

Wfms-Based Data Integration For E-Learning, Jianming Yong, Jun Yan, Xiaodi Huang

Faculty of Informatics - Papers (Archive)

As more and more organisations and institutions are moving towards the e-learning strategy, more and more disparate data are distributed by different e-learning systems. How to effectively use this vast amount of distributed data becomes a big challenge. This paper addresses this challenge and works out a new mechanism to implement data integration for e-learning. A workflow management system based (WFMS-based) data integration model is contributed to the e-learning.


Using Scenario Planning In The Evaluation Of Information Security Applications, Laura Perusco Jan 2006

Using Scenario Planning In The Evaluation Of Information Security Applications, Laura Perusco

Faculty of Informatics - Papers (Archive)

This paper provides a broad overview of the scenario approach as it relates to the evaluation of location based services (LBS) technologies and their appl ication. A scenario is a plausible vision of the future, based around a particular technology or application and developed via a scenario planning methodology. The main worth of the scenario planning approach is that it allows an application to be evaluated in terms of potential social impacts as well as technical merit and commercial viability. A sample scenario is presented within the paper to illustrate how the scenario planning methodology can be used. This scenario …


A New Signature Scheme Without Random Oracles From Bilinear Pairings, Fangguo Zhang, Xiaofeng Chen, Willy Susilo, Yi Mu Jan 2006

A New Signature Scheme Without Random Oracles From Bilinear Pairings, Fangguo Zhang, Xiaofeng Chen, Willy Susilo, Yi Mu

Faculty of Informatics - Papers (Archive)

In this paper, we propose a new signature scheme that is existentially unforgeable under a chosen message attack without random oracle. The security of the proposed scheme depends on a new complexity assumption called the k+1 square roots assumption. Moreover, the k+1 square roots assumption can be used to construct shorter signatures under the random oracle model.


Statistical Service Bounds Of Regulated Flows In A Network, Jingwen Chen, Jiangtao Xi, Zongkai Yang Jan 2006

Statistical Service Bounds Of Regulated Flows In A Network, Jingwen Chen, Jiangtao Xi, Zongkai Yang

Faculty of Informatics - Papers (Archive)

Statistical service has been proposed for service differentiation networks to improve resource utilization. However, it has remained in a challenge to compute end-to-end statistical service bounds for aggregates of regulated flows in a network. In this paper, we develop a generalized statistical traffic envelope, global statistical envelope, which covers not only aggregated traffic of regulated flows, but also a large variety of traffic sources. Based on this characterization, we derive statistical bounds on delay and backlog in a service curve network. The general results are further applied to computing statistical delay bound of aggregated flows regulated by peak rate constrained …


Improving Mobile Station Energy Efficiency In Ieee 802.16e Wman By Burst Scheduling, Jinglin Shi, Gengfa Fang, Yi Sun, Jihua Zhou, Zhongcheng Li, Eryk Dutkiewicz Jan 2006

Improving Mobile Station Energy Efficiency In Ieee 802.16e Wman By Burst Scheduling, Jinglin Shi, Gengfa Fang, Yi Sun, Jihua Zhou, Zhongcheng Li, Eryk Dutkiewicz

Faculty of Informatics - Papers (Archive)

In this paper, we tackle the packet scheduling problem in IEEE 802.16e wireless metropolitan area network (WMAN), where the Sleep Mode is applied to save energy of mobile stations (MSs). Our objective is to design an energy efficient scheduling policy which works closely with the sleep mode mechanism so as to maximize battery lifetime in MSs. To the best of our knowledge no power saving scheduling algorithms based on sleep mode defined in IEEE 802.16e have been proposed so far in the literature. We propose a longest virtual burst first (LVBF) scheduling algorithm which schedules packets of MSs in a …


Computer-Based Nursing Documentation In Nursing Homes: A Feasibility Study, Ping Yu, Yiyu Qiu, Patrick A. Crookes Jan 2006

Computer-Based Nursing Documentation In Nursing Homes: A Feasibility Study, Ping Yu, Yiyu Qiu, Patrick A. Crookes

Faculty of Informatics - Papers (Archive)

The burden of paper-based nursing documentation has led to increasing complaints and decreasing job satisfaction amongst aged-care workers in Australian nursing homes. The automation of nursing documentation has been identified as one of the possible strategies to address this issue. A major obstacle to the introduction of IT solutions, however, has been a prevailing doubt concerning the ability and/or the willingness of aged-care workers to accept such innovation . This research investigates the attitudes of aged-care workers towards adopting IT innovation. Questionnaire survey were conducted in 13 nursing homes around the Illawarra and Sydney regions in Australia. The survey found …


The Design And Analysis Of Multi-Phase Plant Breeding Experiments, A B. Smith, P Lim, Brian R. Cullis Jan 2006

The Design And Analysis Of Multi-Phase Plant Breeding Experiments, A B. Smith, P Lim, Brian R. Cullis

Faculty of Informatics - Papers (Archive)

Despite the importance of selection for quality characteristics in plant improvement programmes, literature on experimental design and statistical analysis for these traits is scarce. Most quality traits are obtained from multi-phase experiments in which plant varieties are first grown in a field trial then further processed in the laboratory. In the present paper a general mixed model approach for the analysis of multi-phase data is described, with particular emphasis on quality trait data that are often highly unbalanced and involve substantial sources of non-genetic variation and correlation. Also detailed is a new approach for experimental design that employs partial replication …


Minimising The Computational Cost Of Providing A Mobile Immersive Communication Environment (Mice), Ying Peng Que, Paul Boustead, Farzad Safaei Jan 2006

Minimising The Computational Cost Of Providing A Mobile Immersive Communication Environment (Mice), Ying Peng Que, Paul Boustead, Farzad Safaei

Faculty of Informatics - Papers (Archive)

This paper investigates the minimisation of the computational cost of providing Immersive Voice Communication (IVC) for mobile clients attached to a Distributed Virtual Environment (DVE). When experiencing IVC, each listening avatar in the DVE, receives a mix of the surrounding avatars’ voices, all rendered according to their respective positions in the virtual world. We propose to deliver our mobile IVC service using a type of server-based network architecture to perform voice spatialisation function and mixing for each mobile client. This model will minimise both the access bandwidth and processing power requirements of the mobile devices. We propose a model for …


Inequivalence Of Nega-Cyclic ±1 Matrices, R. Ang, Jennifer Seberry, Tadeusz A. Wysocki Jan 2006

Inequivalence Of Nega-Cyclic ±1 Matrices, R. Ang, Jennifer Seberry, Tadeusz A. Wysocki

Faculty of Informatics - Papers (Archive)

We study nega-cyclic ±1 matrices. We obtain preliminary results which are then used to decrease the search space. We find that there are 2, 4, 9, 23, 63, and 187 ip-equivalence classes for lengths 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, and 13 respectively. The matrices we find are used in a variant given here of the Goethals-Seidel array to form Hadamard matrices, the aim being to later check them for suitability for CDMA schemes.