Physical Sciences and Mathematics Commons^™

Test Of Localized Management For Reducing Deer Browsing In Forest Regeneration Areas, Brad F. Miller, Tyler A. Campbell, Ben Laseter, W. Mark Ford, Karl Miller

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) browsing in forest regeneration sites can affect current and future stand structure and species composition. Removal of deer social units (localized management) has been proposed as a strategy to alleviate deer overbrowsing in forest systems. We conducted an experimental localized removal in a high-density deer population in the central Appalachians of West Virginia, USA, during winter 2002. We removed 51 deer within a 1.1-km² area that encompassed 2 forest regeneration sites (14 ha). During the summer following removal, we detected decreases in distance from the removal area in 8 of 30 (26.7%) adult …

Promiscuous Mating In Feral Pigs (Sus Scrofa) From Texas, Usa, Johanna Delgado-Acevedo, Angeline Zamorano, Randy W. Deyoung, Tyler A. Campbell, David G. Hewitt, David B. Long

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Context. Feral pigs represent a significant threat to agriculture and ecosystems and are disease reservoirs for pathogens affecting humans, livestock and other wildlife. Information on the behavioural ecology of feral pigs might increase the efficiency and effectiveness of management strategies.

Aims. We assessed the frequency of promiscuous mating in relation to oestrous synchrony in feral pigs from southern Texas, USA, an agroecosystem with a widespread and well established population of feral pigs. An association between multiple paternity of single litters and synchrony of oestrous may indicate alternative mating strategies, such as mateguarding.

Methods. We collected gravid sows at …

Reproductive Biology Of Male Brown Treesnakes (Boiga Irregularis) On Guam, Tom Mathies, John A. Cruz, Valentine A. Lance, Julie A. Savidge

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Reproductive biology of males in the Guam population of the Brown Treesnake, Boiga irregularis, was investigated through monthly examinations of the urogenital system organs and plasma testosterone levels. All males examined during the 12 consecutive months of the study were spermatogenic and had sperm in the ductus epididymis and ductus deferens. No evidence of testicular recrudescence or regression was observed. Testis mass did not vary among months. Epithelial height of the kidney sexual segment was the only feature examined that varied significantly among months, with lowest heights observed in May through July. Despite this variation, the sexual segment in all …

Contraceptive Efficacy Of A Novel Intrauterine Device (Iud) In White-Tailed Deer, Karl D. Malcolm, Timothy R. Van Deelen, David Drake, Darrel J. Kesler, Kurt C. Vercauteren

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Overabundant white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) pose risks to property, health, and safety of human beings. Public concerns about lethal management can impair efforts to address these issues, particularly in urban settings. Several techniques developed for reducing reproductive output of deer have limited utility because they require repeated dosing to achieve permanent effect and face uncertain regulatory approval for use beyond experimentation. From 10 August 2006 through 30 December 2007, we evaluated the contraceptive efficacy of copper-containing intrauterine devices (IUDs) implanted trans-cervically in white-tailed deer at the E.S. George Reserve in Pinckney, Michigan. Intrauterine devices were implanted before (n …

Acetaminophen As An Oral Toxicant For Nile Monitor Lizards (Varanus Niloticus) And Burmese Pythons (Python Molurus Bivittatus), Richard E. Mauldin, Peter J. Savarie

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Context. Invasive species are a growing global problem. Biological invasions can result in numerous harmful impacts on local ecologies, and non-native herpetofauna are frequently ignored. Nile monitor lizards (Varanus niloticus) and Burmese pythons (Python molurus bivittatus, recently reassessed as Python bivittatus bivittatus), have become established in southern Florida. Both are large, semi-aquatic predators that pose serious threats to a variety of threatened and endangered species, as well as to the unique ecology of the area.

Aims. Acetaminophen (CAS#103-90-2), a lethal oral toxicant for the invasive brown treesnake (Boiga irregularis) on Guam, was investigated …

Seeking A Second Opinion: Uncertainty In Disease Ecology, Brett T. Mcclintock, James D. Nichols, Larissa L. Bailey, Darryl I. Mackenzie, William. L. Kendall, Alan B. Franklin

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Analytical methods accounting for imperfect detection are often used to facilitate reliable inference in population and community ecology. We contend that similar approaches are needed in disease ecology because these complicated systems are inherently difficult to observe without error. For example, wildlife disease studies often designate individuals, populations, or spatial units to states (e.g., susceptible, infected, post-infected), but the uncertainty associated with these state assignments remains largely ignored or unaccounted for. We demonstrate how recent developments incorporating observation error through repeated sampling extend quite naturally to hierarchical spatial models of disease effects, prevalence, and dynamics in natural systems. A highly …

The Earliest House Sparrow Introductions To North America, Michael P. Moulton, Wendell P. Cropper Jr., Michael L. Avery, Linda E. Moulton

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Several authors have argued that three separate introductions of roughly 100 individuals were required initially to establish the House Sparrow (Passer domesticus) in the Brooklyn, New York area. We argue that these claims are in error and that the actual record suggests that it is likely the initial introduction of just 16 birds in 1851 was all that was required to establish the species in New York. We further suggest that a similar level of scrutiny of historical records will reveal more examples of misinterpretations and errors, casting doubt on the validity of studies that claim propagule pressure …

Fine-Scale Genetic And Social Structuring In A Central Appalachian White-Tailed Deer Herd, Brad F. Miller, Randy W. Deyoung, Tyler A. Campbell, Benjamin R. Laseter, W. Mark Ford, Karl V. Miller

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Spatial genetic structure in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) has been examined at regional scales, but genetic markers with the resolution to detect fine-scale patterns have appeared only recently. We used a panel of microsatellite DNA markers, radiotelemetry data, and visual observations of marked deer to study fine-scale social and genetic structure in a high-density population of white-tailed deer (12–20 deer/km²). We collected genetic data on 229 adult females, 102 of which were assigned to 28 social groups. Our results were consistent with the conceptual model of white-tailed deer social structure, where philopatric females form social groups …

Host-Specificity Of Myxoma Virus: Pathogenesis Of South American And North American Strains Of Myxoma Virus In Two North American Lagomorph Species, L. Silvers, D. Barnard, F. Knowlton, B. Inglis, A. Labudovic, M.K. Holland, P.A. Janssens, B.H. Van Leeuwen, P.J. Kerr

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

The pathogenesis of South American and North American myxoma viruses was examined in two species of North American lagomorphs, Sylvilagus nuttallii (mountain cottontail) and Sylvilagus audubonii (desert cottontail) both of which have been shown to have the potential to transmit the South American type of myxoma virus. Following infection with the South American strain (Lausanne, Lu), S. nuttallii developed both a local lesion and secondary lesions on the skin. They did not develop the classical myxomatosis seen in European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus). The infection at the inoculation site did not resolve during the 20-day time course of the …

The Versatility Of Graded Acoustic Measures In Classification Of Predation Threats By The Tufted Titmouse Baeolophus Bicolor: Exploring A Mixed Framework For Threat Communication, Kathryn E. Sieving, Stacia A. Hetrick, Michael L. Avery

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Many mammal and bird species respond to predator encounters with alarm vocalizations that generate risk-appropriate responses in listeners. Two conceptual frameworks are typically applied to the information encoded in alarm calls and to associated anti-predator behaviors. ‘Functionally referential’ alarm systems encode nominal classes or categories of risk in distinct call types that refer to distinct predation-risk situations. ‘Risk-based’ alarms encode graded or ranked threat-levels by varying the production patterns of the same call types as the urgency of predation threat changes. Recent work suggests that viewing alarm-response interactions as either referential or risk-based may oversimplify how animals use information in …

Potential Economic Damage From Introduction Of Brown Tree Snakes, Boiga Irregularis (Reptilia: Colubridae), To The Islands Of Hawai‘I, Stephanie A. Shwiff, Karen Gebhardt, Katy N. Kirkpatrick, Steven S. Shwiff

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

The Brown Tree Snake (Boiga irregularis) has caused ecological and economic damage to Guam, and the snake has the potential to colonize other islands in the Pacific Ocean. This study quantifies the potential economic damage if the snake were translocated, established in the state of Hawaii, and causing damage at levels similar to those on Guam. Damages modeled included costs of medical treatments due to snakebites, snake-caused power outages, and decreased tourism resulting from effects of the snake. Damage caused by presence of the Brown Tree Snake on Guam was used as a guide to estimate potential economic …

Polyurea Elastomer Protects Utility Pole Crossarms From Damage By Pileated Woodpeckers, Shelagh Tupper, William Andelt, John Cummings, Charles Weisner, Richard Harness

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Woodpeckers cause severe damage to utility poles and crossarms, resulting in substantial economic losses to utility companies. We evaluated effectiveness of a polyurea elastomer coating material for reducing damage by captive pileated woodpeckers (Dryocopus pileatus) to utility pole crossarms. Because woodpeckers inflicted essentially no damage to the fully coated crossarms, we infer that the coating material holds substantial promise for protecting utility pole crossarms. Additional research should be conducted to evaluate the coating under field conditions.

Evaluation Of Christmas Bird Counts And Landscape Factors As Indicators Of Local Blackbird And European Starling Winter Roosts, Matthew Strassburg, George M. Linz, William Bleier

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Red-winged blackbirds (RWBL) and common grackles (COGR) are the two most abundant blackbird species on the continent; Brewer's blackbirds (BRBL) are a much less common, but closely related species, and along with European starlings (EUST), they are two of the most common groups of birds in North America, with combined populations that reach into the several hundreds of millions and make up a significant portion of the avian population (Yasukawa and Searcy 1995). Although the most common bird on the continent, certain regions have seen declines in RWBL for a number of decades. In Ohio and North Dakota, this has …

Increased Risk Of Chronic Wasting Disease In Rocky Mountain Elk Associated With Decreased Magnesium And Increased Manganese In Brain Tissue, Stephen N. White, Katherine I. O’Rourke, Thomas Gidlewski, Kurt C. Vercauteren, Michelle R. Mousel, Gregory E. Phillips, Terry R. Spraker

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is a transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE) of Rocky Mountain elk in North America. Recent studies suggest that tissue and blood mineral levels may be valuable in assessing TSE infection in sheep and cattle. The objectives of this study were to examine baseline levels of copper, manganese, magnesium, zinc, selenium, and molybdenum in the brains of Rocky Mountain elk with differing prion genotypes and to assess the association of mineral levels with CWD infection. Elk with leucine at prion position 132 had significantly lower magnesium levels than elk with 2 copies of methionine. Chronic wasting disease-positive elk …

Potential Attractants For Detecting And Removing Invading Gambian Giant Pouched Rats (Cricetomys Gambianus), Gary W. Witmer, Nathan P. Snow, Patrick Burke

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

BACKGROUND: Native to Africa, Gambian giant pouched rats (Gambian rats; Cricetomys gambianus Waterh.) are a threatening invasive species on a Florida island, Grassy Key. Gambian giant pouched rats shifted from a domestic pet to invading species after suspected release from a pet breeder. Because of the large size of Gambian rats (weighing up to 2.8 kg), they pose a serious threat to native species (particularly nesting species) and agricultural crops, especially if Gambian rats invade mainland Florida. Also, Gambian rats pose a threat from disease, as they were implicated in a monkeypox outbreak in the mid-western United States in 2003. …

Epizootiologic Survey Of Mycobacterium Bovis In Wildlife And Farm Environments In Northern Michigan, Gary W. Witmer, Amanda E. Fine, James Gionfriddo, Michael Pipas, Kirk Shively, Kim Piccolo, Patrick Burke

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Bovine tuberculosis (bovine TB), caused by Mycobacterium bovis, has reemerged in northern Michigan, USA, with detections in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in 1994 and in cattle in 1998. Since then, significant efforts have been directed toward reducing deer densities in the area in the hopes of reducing the bovine TB prevalence rate in deer and eliminating spillover of the disease into cattle. Despite the success of the efforts to reduce deer densities, additional cattle herds have become infected. Other mammals can be infected with M. bovis, and some carnivores and omnivores had been found to be infected with …

Review Of Issues Concerning The Use Of Reproductive Inhibitors, With Particular Emphasis On Resolving Human-Wildlife Conflicts In North America, Kathleen A. Fagerstone, Lowell A. Miller, Gary Killian, Christi A. Yoder

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

This manuscript provides an overview of past wildlife contraception efforts and discusses the current state of research. Two fertility control agents, an avian reproductive inhibitor containing the active ingredient nicarbazin and an immunocontraceptive vaccine, have received regulatory approval with the Environmental Protection Agency and are commercially available in the USA. OvoControl G Contraceptive Bait for Canada Geese and Ovo Control for pigeons are delivered as oral baits. An injectable immunocontraceptive vaccine (GonaCon Immunocontraceptive Vaccine) was registered with the Environmental Protection Agency for use in female white-tailed deer in September 2009. An injectable product (GonaCon Immunocontraceptive Vaccine) is registered for use …

Synchronous Monitoring Of Vulture Movements With Satellite Telemetry And Avian Radar, Robert C. Beason, J. S. Humphrey, N. E. Myers, Michael L. Avery

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Radar and satellite global positioning system-platform transmitter terminal (GPSPTT) transmitters provide complementary information on the movements and behaviors of individual birds. The GPS-PTT tag provides a snapshot of altitude and location of a specific individual of an identified species at predefined intervals. The history of the individual is known because each transmitter has a unique identification code. The radar cannot identify individuals or even species but it provides continuous position reports (altitude and location) of birds within its detection range. By integrating data from the two sources, the behavior and movements of identified individuals (not possible with radar) can be …

Capture Of Ungulates In Central Asia Using Drive Nets: Advantages And Pitfalls Illustrated By The Endangered Mongolian Saiga Saiga Tatarica Mongolica, Joel Berger, Kim M. Murray, Bayarbaatar Buuveibaatar, Mike R. Dunbar, Badamjav Lkhagvasuren

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

The study of mammals suffering intense poaching in remote areas poses an increasingly difficult conservation challenge, in part because the extreme flightiness of such species complicates safe capture. The benefits of handling (an opportunity to obtain biological information and attach radio collars) must be weighed against stress to the animals and potential capture-related mortality. In parts of Central Asia this problem is not trivial, as populations have been heavily harvested and opportunities for restraint are often limited. Mongolian saiga Saiga tatarica mongolica, being both Endangered and poached, typifies these issues. Here we describe capture protocols for adult females handled …

Seroprevalence Of Equine Influenza Virus In Northeast And Southern Mexico, B. J. Blitvitch, L. A. Ibarra-Juarez, A. J. Cortes-Guzman, J. J. Root, A. B. Franklin, H. J. Sullivan, I. Fernandez-Salas

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Equine influenza A virus (EIV) is a highly infectious respiratory pathogen of horses (Hannant and Mumford 1996, Palese and Shaw 2007). The illness is characterised by an abrupt onset of fever, depression, coughing and nasal discharge, and is often complicated by secondary bacterial infections that can lead to pneumonia and death. Two subtypes of EIV, H3N8 and H7N7, have been isolated. The H7N7 subtype was first isolated from a horse in Czechoslovakia in 1956 (Prague/56), and the H3N8 subtype was first isolated from a horse in Miami in 1963 (Sovinova and others 1958, Waddell and others 1963). The last confirmed …

In Memory William B. Jackson 1926-2010, Michael W. Fall

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

DR. WILLIAM B. JACKSON of Chicago, Illinois, passed away July 15, 2010. He was a scientist, teacher, husband, father, grandfather, and friend. Over the years, he served as an advisor and mentor to many people who found their way to his classes or offices at Bowling Green State University (BGSU).

He was born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, September 10, 1926, and spent many hours collecting insects and watching birds, becoming president of his high school nature club and an Eagle Scout. He earned B.A. and M.A. degrees from the University of Wisconsin, and his Sc.D. in vertebrate ecology from Johns Hopkins …

Experimental Infection Of Raccoons (Procyon Lotor) With West Nile Virus, J. Jeffrey Root, Kevin T. Bentler, Nicole M. Nemeth, Thomas Gidlewski, Terry R. Spraker, Alan B. Franklin

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

To characterize the responses of raccoons to West Nile virus (WNV) infection, we subcutaneously exposed them to WNV. Moderately high viremia titers (≤ 10^4.6 plaque forming units [PFU]/mL of serum) were noted in select individuals; however, peak viremia titers were variable and viremia was detectable in some individuals as late as 10 days post-inoculation (DPI). In addition, fecal shedding was prolonged in some animals (e.g., between 6 and 13 DPI in one individual), with up to10^5.0 PFU/fecal swab detected. West Nile virus was not detected in tissues collected on 10 or 16 DPI, and no histologic lesions attributable …

Response Of Captive Skunks To Microencapsulated Tetracycline, Brandon S. Schmit, Thomas M. Primus, Jerome C. Hurley, Dennis J. Kohler, Shawna F. Graves

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

A captive striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis) study was conducted between February and June 2004 at the United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Wildlife Services National Wildlife Research Center, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA. The main objective was to determine the percentage of adult striped skunks that were marked after consuming placebo oral rabies vaccine (ORV) baits containing 100 mg of an experimental microencapsulated (coated microparticle) tetracycline hydrochloride biomarker. Biomarkers were identified in the canine teeth and mandibles of five of five skunks that consumed an ORV bait. A second objective was to determine if …

Mite-Filled Cyst On A Brown-Headed Cowbird (Molothrus Ater) In Florida, Usa, Marilyn G. Spalding, James W. Mertins, Matthew J. Reetz, Kandy L. Keacher, Michael L. Avery, Ellis C. Greiner

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

A large, partly pedunculated mass on the scapular area of a wild-caught captive Brown-headed Cowbird (Molothrus ater) consisted of a multiloculated keratin cyst inhabited by a new species of harpirhynchid mite (Harpirhynchus quasimodo). The mass did not interfere with flight or behavior. This is the first record of such an infestation of cowbirds in Florida.

Foot-And-Mouth Disease In Feral Swine: Susceptibility And Transmission, F. Mohamed, S. Swafford, H. Petrowski, A. Bracht, B. S. Schmit, A. Fabian, J. M. Pacheco, E. Hartwig, M. Berninger, C. Carrillo, G. Mayr, K. Moran, D. Kavanaugh, H. Leibrecht, W. White, S. Metwally

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Experimental studies of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) in feral swine are limited, and data for clinical manifestations and disease transmissibility are lacking. In this report, feral and domestic swine were experimentally infected with FMDV (A24-Cruzeiro), and susceptibility and virus transmission were studied. Feral swine were proved to be highly susceptible to A-24 Cruzeiro FMD virus by intradermal inoculation and by contact with infected domestic and feral swine. Typical clinical signs in feral swine included transient fever, lameness and vesicular lesions in the coronary bands, heel bulbs, tip of the tongue and snout. Domestic swine exhibited clinical signs of the disease within …

Evaluating Commercially Available Rodenticide Baits For Invasive Gambian Giant Pouched Rats (Cricetomys Gambianus), Gary W. Witmer, Nathan P. Snow, Patrick W. Burke

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Gambian giant pouched rats (Cricetomys gambianus) are native to Africa, but they are popular in the pet industry in the United States. They were reservoir hosts during a monkeypox outbreak in the Midwestern United States in 2003. A free-ranging population became established on Grassy Key in the Florida Keys, apparently because of a release by a pet breeder. These rodents could cause significant damage to agricultural crops should they reach the mainland. Research under controlled conditions was needed to identify effective rodenticides for Grassy Key or other cases where an invasion of Gambian rats might occur. We tested …

New Evidence Suggests Southern China As A Common Source Of Multiple Clusters Of Highly Pathogenic H5n1 Avian Influenza Virus, Bin Wu, Chengmin Wang, Guoying Dong, Yunhai Guo, Dale L. Nolte, Thomas Jude Deliberto, Jianguo Xu, Mingxing Duan, Hongxuan He

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza is considered an avian disease, although there is some evidence of limited human-to-human transmission of the virus. A global effort is underway to control or eradicate the highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza virus in poultry and prevent human exposure, both of which may also reduce the risk of pandemic emergence. Hemagglutinin gene sequences from 215 human H5N1 influenza viruses were used to trace the source and dispersal pattern of human H5N1 influenza viruses on a global scale. A mutation network and phylogenetic analyses of the hemagglutinin gene show that human H5N1 influenza viruses can be …

Antibodies To Influenza And West Nile Viruses In Horses In Mexico, M. A. Loroño-Pino, J. A. Farfan-Ale, J. E. Garcia-Rejon, M. Lin, E. Rosado-Paredes, F. I. Puerto, A. Bates, J. J. Root, A. B. Franklin, H. J. Sullivan, B. J. Blitvich

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

INFLUENZA A virus (IAV) (family Orthomyxoviridae) is a highly infectious respiratory pathogen of birds and mammals, including human beings and horses (Palese and Shaw 2007). The virus is classified into different subtypes based on the antigenic properties of the haemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) proteins. Sixteen HA subtypes (H1 to H16) and nine NA subtypes (N1 to N9) have been identified (Fouchier and others 2005). Two subtypes, H3N8 and H7N7, have been isolated from horses. The H7N7 subtype was first isolated from a horse in Czechoslovakia in 1956 (Prague/56) (Sovinova and others 1958), and the H3N8 subtype was first isolated …

Evaluation Of Feral Swine- Specific Feeder Systems, David B. Long, Tyler A. Campbell, Giovanna Massei

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Feral swine (Sus scrofa) have been introduced across many portions of the globe, including rangeland ecosystems of the United States. Feral swine populations are expanding because of their adaptability, high reproductive potential, and because they are (accidentally and intentionally) released by humans. Today, feral swine are the most abundant exotic ungulate in the United States.

Rangeland ecosystems are impacted by feral swine primarily through soil disturbance caused by rooting activities. Within these systems, natural disturbances (e.g., burrowing, grazing by native animals, and periodic fire) generally increase or maintain species diversity. However, rooting by feral swine often occurs at …

A Silent Enzootic Of An Orthopoxvirus In Ghana, West Africa: Evidence For Multi-Species Involvement In The Absence Of Widespread Human Disease, Mary G. Reynolds, Darin S. Carroll, Victoria A. Olson, Christine Hughes, Jack Galley, Anna Likos, Joel M. Montgomery, Richard Suu-Ire, Mubarak O. Kwasi, J. Jeffrey Root, Zach Braden, Jason Abel, Cody Clemmons, Russell Regnery, Kevin Karem, Inger K. Damon

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Human monkeypox has never been reported in Ghana, but rodents captured in forested areas of southern Ghana were the source of the monkeypox virus introduced into the United States in 2003. Subsequent to the outbreak in the United States, 204 animals were collected from two commercial trapping sites in Ghana. Animal tissues were examined for the presence of orthopoxvirus (OPXV) DNA using a real-time polymerase chain reaction, and sera were assayed for antibodies against OPXV. Animals from five genera (Cricetomys , Graphiurus , Funiscirus, and Heliosciurus ) had antibodies against OPXV, and three genera (Cricetomys , Graphiurus …