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Articles 38371 - 38400 of 302433
Full-Text Articles in Physical Sciences and Mathematics
Eruption Evolution Of West Mata Volcano, Ne Lau Basin Using Hydroacoustic And Video Data, Mikkel Shanice Louis
Eruption Evolution Of West Mata Volcano, Ne Lau Basin Using Hydroacoustic And Video Data, Mikkel Shanice Louis
WWU Graduate School Collection
West Mata Volcano located in the NE Lau Basin is the site of the deepest observed submarine volcanic eruption, 1,200 meters below sea level. In May 2009, a research cruise collected video data of two eruptive vents showcasing different eruption styles. During the same research cruise, a BprobeTM portable hydrophone was deployed at the summit of West Mata and collected data that coincides with video recorded at the vents during ROV dives. These data sets were correlated to better understand the spectral signatures associated with the two eruptive vents. Both vents were near the summit, about 50 meters apart, …
Responses Of The Symbiotic Sea Anemone Anthopleura Elegantissima To Microplastics, Robert Beck
Responses Of The Symbiotic Sea Anemone Anthopleura Elegantissima To Microplastics, Robert Beck
WWU Graduate School Collection
The Salish Sea, a large and complex fjord estuary, receives waters impacted by a watershed that includes 8 million people aggregated in several large urban and industrial centers. Microplastics, defined as plastic particles less than 5 mm in their largest dimension, are transported from this watershed into the Salish Sea where they are easily ingested by filter feeders, herbivores and predators. To measure effects of microplastics on one common and important intertidal species, we exposed the sea anemone Anthopleura elegantissima to polyester microfibers at concentrations of 0, 0.01, or 0.1 g/L in the laboratory and measured the responses of the …
Ecological Risk Assessment Of Tire Wear Particles In The San Francisco Bay Using A Bayesian Network Relative Risk Model, Emma E. Sharpe
Ecological Risk Assessment Of Tire Wear Particles In The San Francisco Bay Using A Bayesian Network Relative Risk Model, Emma E. Sharpe
WWU Graduate School Collection
Here we present an ecological risk assessment for a specific type of microplastic in the San Francisco Bay. There has been an increased interest in understanding and managing the impacts that microplastics may have on ecological systems because recent studies have shown that plastic particles are widespread in the environment and that exposure to these particles has toxicological effects. Until now, an ecological risk assessment for microplastics that meets the current standards for risk assessment, has not been completed. This study lays the groundwork for future ecological risk assessments of microplastics and identifies key uncertainties that need to be addressed. …
Living In Pele's Workshop: Using Community-Informed Planning To Address Housing Needs In Puna, Hawai'i, Taylor Webb
Living In Pele's Workshop: Using Community-Informed Planning To Address Housing Needs In Puna, Hawai'i, Taylor Webb
WWU Graduate School Collection
The purpose of this research project is to understand the ways in which the current land use regulations in Puna, Hawai’i have impacted accessibility to a variety of affordable housing forms. The 2018 Kīlauea eruption and COVID-19 pandemic have exacerbated issues in the community that were already prevalent in the area including rising housing costs, lack of housing options, and insufficient infrastructure and access to essential services. As more people continue to move into the Puna District, these issues are becoming intensified. With these complexities in mind, I utilized a mixed-method research approach to study both the physical and social …
Using Frog Embryo Teratogenesis Assay-Xenopus Laevis (Fetax) To Study Metals And Temperature As Multiple Stressors In Cascades Frog (Rana Cascadae), Adam Turner (Cockrill) Crispin
Using Frog Embryo Teratogenesis Assay-Xenopus Laevis (Fetax) To Study Metals And Temperature As Multiple Stressors In Cascades Frog (Rana Cascadae), Adam Turner (Cockrill) Crispin
WWU Graduate School Collection
Amphibian populations have been declining globally since at least the 1970s. In the western United States, disappearances have resulted in significant range contractions due to habitat loss, climate change, predation by non-native species, pesticide use, and disease, most recently by the fungal pathogen, Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. Several recent studies have addressed amphibian population declines due to climate change, yet few studies have examined the interacting effects of climate change and metal contaminants as they relate to amphibians. Risks may be especially pronounced in amphibians that reside in high-alpine aquatic ecosystems, such as the Cascades frog (Rana cascadae), which may be affected …
Avian And Shallow Water Community Response To Pacific Herring (Clupea Pallasii) Spawn Events, Heidi Stewart
Avian And Shallow Water Community Response To Pacific Herring (Clupea Pallasii) Spawn Events, Heidi Stewart
WWU Graduate School Collection
Pacific Herring play a critical role in the food web of the Salish Sea. The Cherry Point stock, centered 30 miles north of Bellingham Bay, has declined roughly 97% since the 1970s. This massive decline is a point of concern for environmental and fishery managers and has led to research into both the initial decline and the stock’s inability to recover. One key data gap in need of research is whether the Cherry Point herring stock is experiencing increased predation from the nearshore fish, bird, and invertebrate community due to its unique late spawn timing and spawning behavior. To that …
Species Distribution And Abundance Of Bering Sea Tunicates With Implications For Coastal Food Security, Meghan Bugaj
Species Distribution And Abundance Of Bering Sea Tunicates With Implications For Coastal Food Security, Meghan Bugaj
WWU Graduate School Collection
The use of sessile macroinvertebrates as leading indicators of change in marine ecosystems makes them potentially valuable as a management tool for predicting habitat suitability for more mobile, commercially important fishes. In addition to potential use as an ecosystem indicator in fisheries management, tunicates are used as a food resource by some Alaska Native communities. Variability in abundance and distribution, driven by changing physical conditions in the Bering Sea, could impact food security for these communities. I used fishery-independent NOAA survey data from the Eastern Bering Sea summer surveys from 1987 to 2019 to examine abundance and distribution of several …
Modeling 21st Century Peak Streamflows In The Stillaguamish Watershed Using Dynamically Downscaled General Circulation Model Projections, James Marcell Robinson
Modeling 21st Century Peak Streamflows In The Stillaguamish Watershed Using Dynamically Downscaled General Circulation Model Projections, James Marcell Robinson
WWU Graduate School Collection
Climate change is projected to increase river flooding in the Puget Sound region of Washington State by reducing snowpack and yielding more intense storm events. Pairing meteorological forcings from general circulation models (GCMs) with a physically based hydrologic model is a robust method of assessing watershed response to projected climate. Before GCM forcings can be applied to regional hydrologic models, some form of downscaling or regionalization is required. Dynamical downscaling is a means of incorporating mesoscale atmospheric processes within GCM-informed boundary conditions. Here I apply climate projections, dynamically downscaled using the Weather Research and Forecasting model (WRF), to the Stillaguamish …
The Photochemical Evolution Of Dissolved Black Carbon In Snow: A Case Study From The North Cascades, Molly Peek
The Photochemical Evolution Of Dissolved Black Carbon In Snow: A Case Study From The North Cascades, Molly Peek
WWU Graduate School Collection
Black carbon (BC) is partially combusted organic material from natural and anthropogenic sources, and is a highly effective driver of melt in the cryosphere. BC has been found in both populated and remote areas around the globe. This study follows the evolution of UV-exposed dissolved BC (DBC) in the cryosphere using the Benzenepolycarboxylic Acid (BPCA) markers B4CA, B5CA, and B6CA. Samples were collected from Mount Baker, Washington, and from both an in situ field study and a controlled photodegradation study, both using natural and anthropogenic BC standards. Both natural and experimental samples had a dominance of B5CA relative to other …
Polarization Properties Of Millisecond Pulsars: Astrophysical Interpretations And Applications, Haley Megan Wahl
Polarization Properties Of Millisecond Pulsars: Astrophysical Interpretations And Applications, Haley Megan Wahl
Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports
Pulsars are some of the most extreme objects in the universe; their small yet incredibly predictable spin periods coupled with their strong magnetic fields make them ideal laboratories for study. Not only are they interesting objects themselves, but they can also help us probe different astrophysical environments, such as the interstellar magnetic field and the solar corona.
These stars are highly polarized, and that polarization comes into play in various fields of pulsar physics (such as constraining models of pulsar emission), but obtaining that polarization information can be difficult, as the polarization properties of the light can change as the …
Synthesis, Characterization, And Activation Of Pyridine Dipyrrolide Supported Vanadium-Nitrogen Multiple Bonds, Jordan Cruz Martinez
Synthesis, Characterization, And Activation Of Pyridine Dipyrrolide Supported Vanadium-Nitrogen Multiple Bonds, Jordan Cruz Martinez
Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports
The chemistry of coordination complexes of vanadium supported by pyridine di-pyrrolide pincer ligands was probed via the synthesis and investigation of a variety of compounds from the trivalent starting material, (MesPDPPh)VCl(thf)2. Under reducing conditions and subsequent addition of terpyridine, a redox transfer series (1-, 0, 1+) stemming from the neutral product (MesPDPPh)V(terpy) was isolated and characterized by X-ray crystallography. The precise bond lengths, in conjunction with bulk magnetic susceptibility, allowed for a detailed study of the redox non-innocence of polypyridyl ligands in these systems.
Metathesis of the halide starting material …
Structure-Dependent Characterizations Of Multistationarity In Mass-Action Reaction Networks, Galyna Voitiuk
Structure-Dependent Characterizations Of Multistationarity In Mass-Action Reaction Networks, Galyna Voitiuk
Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports
This project explores a topic in Chemical Reaction Network Theory. We analyze networks with one dimensional stoichiometric subspace using mass-action kinetics. For these types of networks, we study how the capacity for multiple positive equilibria and multiple positive nondegenerate equilibria can be determined using Euclidian embedded graphs. Our work adds to the catalog of the class of reaction networks with one-dimensional stoichiometric subspace answering in the affirmative a conjecture posed by Joshi and Shiu: Conjecture 0.1 (Question 6.1 [26]). A reaction network with one-dimensional stoichiometric subspace and more than one source complex has the capacity for multistationarity if and only …
Scaling Theory Of 3d Magnetic Reconnection X-Line Spreading, Milton Arencibia
Scaling Theory Of 3d Magnetic Reconnection X-Line Spreading, Milton Arencibia
Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports
Magnetic reconnection is fundamental process in plasmas that converts magnetic energy into kinetic and thermal energy via a change in magnetic topology. Magnetic reconnection is known to mediate eruptive solar flares, geomagnetic substorms that create the Northern lights, heating and particle acceleration in controlled fusion devices, and is thought to be an important process in numerous settings in high-energy astrophysics. Classical models of reconnection are two-dimensional (2D), but naturally occurring reconnection is three-dimensional (3D), and a manifestation of the 3D nature is that the x-line where the magnetic field topology changes has a finite extent in the direction normal to …
Characterizing The Effects Of Solvent And Analyte Properties On Ionization Efficiency By Novel Field-Free And Field-Enabled Ionization Techniques, Kinkini Udara Jayasundara
Characterizing The Effects Of Solvent And Analyte Properties On Ionization Efficiency By Novel Field-Free And Field-Enabled Ionization Techniques, Kinkini Udara Jayasundara
Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports
In recent years the mass spectrometry (MS) area of field and/or direct analysis has grown dramatically. As a result, field-portable and miniaturized mass spectrometers, introduced only a few years ago, are proliferating. A highly desired feature for field-portable MS, or in-field analysis, is the ability to use ionization techniques requiring very little sample preparation as well as an ability to generate the ions under ambient conditions. Recently, a new ambient ionization technique termed vibrating sharp-edge spray ionization (VSSI) has been introduced which overcomes the field-portable limitations of other spray-based methods including the requirements for auxiliary components (e.g., nebulizing gas and …
Black Walnut Plantations In West Virginia: Maximizing Financial Returns Through Decision Modeling And Cash Flow Analysis, Erin Duffy Shaw
Black Walnut Plantations In West Virginia: Maximizing Financial Returns Through Decision Modeling And Cash Flow Analysis, Erin Duffy Shaw
Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports
The purpose of this study was to identify the management strategies that lead to maximum financial returns from a black walnut plantation. To evaluate a selection of plantation establishment scenarios, thinning treatments, and product objectives, an Excel-based black walnut financial model was updated and revised. Key updates to the model included incorporating three cash flows for 1) the collection and wholesale of black walnut sap, 2) producing black walnut syrup, and 3) leasing black walnut trees for tapping. Additionally, outputs from the Forest Vegetation Simulator were integrated into the model’s growth and yield projections as a means of more accurately …
Deep Learning Detection In The Visible And Radio Spectrums, Greg Clancy Murray
Deep Learning Detection In The Visible And Radio Spectrums, Greg Clancy Murray
Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports
Deep learning models with convolutional neural networks are being used to solve some of the most difficult problems in computing today. Complicating factors to the use and development of deep learning models include lack of availability of large volumes of data, lack of problem specific samples, and the lack variations in the specific samples available. The costs to collect this data and to compute the models for the task of detection remains a inhibitory condition for all but the most well funded organizations. This thesis seeks to approach deep learning from a cost reduction and hybrid perspective — incorporating techniques …
From Evaluating The Performance Of Approximations In Density Functional Theory To A Machine Learning Design, Pedram Tavazohi
From Evaluating The Performance Of Approximations In Density Functional Theory To A Machine Learning Design, Pedram Tavazohi
Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports
Density-functional theory (DFT) has gained popularity because of its ability to predict the properties of a large group of materials a priori. Even though DFT is exact, there are inaccuracies introduced into the theory due to the approximations in the exchange-correlation (XC) functionals. Over the 50 years of its existence, scientists have tried to improve the design of the XC functionals. The errors introduced by these functionals are not consistent across all types of solid-state materials. In this project, a high throughput framework was utilized to compare the theoretical DFT predictions with the experimental results available in the Inorganic Crystal …
Efficacy Of Reported Issue Times As A Means For Effort Estimation, Paul Phillip Maclean
Efficacy Of Reported Issue Times As A Means For Effort Estimation, Paul Phillip Maclean
Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports
Software effort is a measure of manpower dedicated to developing and maintaining and software. Effort estimation can help project managers monitor their software, teams, and timelines. Conversely, improper effort estimation can result in budget overruns, delays, lost contracts, and accumulated Technical Debt (TD). Issue Tracking Systems (ITS) have become mainstream project management tools, with over 65,000 companies using Jira alone. ITS are an untapped resource for issue resolution effort research. Related work investigates issue effort for specific issue types, usually Bugs or similar. They model their developer-documented issue resolution times using features from the issues themselves. This thesis explores a …
Inferential Statistics And Information Theoretical Measures: An Approach To Interference Detection In Radio Astronomy, Morgan R. Dameron
Inferential Statistics And Information Theoretical Measures: An Approach To Interference Detection In Radio Astronomy, Morgan R. Dameron
Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports
In a time when technology is rapidly growing, radio observatories are now able to expand their computational power to achieve higher receiver sensitivity power and a more flexible realtime computing approach to probe the universe for its composition and study new astronomical phenomena. This allows searches to go deeper into the universe, and results in the recording of massive quantities of observed data. At the same time, this increases the amount of radio frequency interference (RFI) found in the obtained observatory data. The high power of RFI easily masks the low power of extraterrestrial signals, making them hard to detect …
Development Of Computational Methods For Electronic Structural Characterization Of Strongly Correlated Materials: From Different Ab-Initio Perspectives, Uthpala K. Herath
Development Of Computational Methods For Electronic Structural Characterization Of Strongly Correlated Materials: From Different Ab-Initio Perspectives, Uthpala K. Herath
Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports
The electronic correlations in materials drive a variety of fascinating phenomena from magnetism to metal-to-insulator transitions (MIT), which are due to the coupling between electron spin, charge, ionic displacements, and orbital ordering. Although Density Functional Theory (DFT) successfully describes the electronic structure of weakly interacting material systems, being a static mean-field approach, it fails to predict the properties of Strongly Correlated Materials (SCM) that include transition and rare earth metals where there is a prominent electron localization as in the case of d and f orbitals due to the nature of their spatial confinement.
Dynamical Mean Field Theory (DMFT) is …
Quantifying Water Security In West Virginia And The Potomac River Basin, Eric Carl Edvard Sinius Sjostedt
Quantifying Water Security In West Virginia And The Potomac River Basin, Eric Carl Edvard Sinius Sjostedt
Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports
All healthy ecosystems, communities, and economies are founded on access to clean, adequate water sources to support ecosystem services, provide clean drinking water, and allow the production of water-intensive goods and services. The state of available water resources must be analyzed through the lens of water security, defined as the capability to safeguard sustainable access to adequate quantities of acceptable quality water for people, the economy, and ecosystems. Mountain regions are sources of freshwater resources for downstream regions, which produce disproportionately higher runoff than downstream regions. As a result, mountain regions are often referred to as natural water towers …
The Potential Of Diabase Sills In Eastern Pennsylvania To Store Co2 And H2, Rhiannon R. Schmitt
The Potential Of Diabase Sills In Eastern Pennsylvania To Store Co2 And H2, Rhiannon R. Schmitt
Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports
With anthropogenic CO2 concentrations rising, geologic carbon sequestration and H2 storage are essential processes in mitigating climate change. Typical geologic carbon sequestration involves the capture of anthropogenic CO2 and injection into depleted oil/gas reservoirs or saline formations with an impermeable cap rock to prevent the buoyant migration of CO2. The risk of eventual CO2 migration through these low permeability cap rocks adds expensive monitoring costs to this traditional sequestration strategy. Another method for CO2 sequestration utilizes the reaction of CO2 with mafic and ultramafic rocks. CarbFix, a sequestration project in Iceland, has …
Structural And Petrologic Insights Into The Emplacement Of Effusive Silicic Lavas: Inyo Domes, California, Shelby L. Isom
Structural And Petrologic Insights Into The Emplacement Of Effusive Silicic Lavas: Inyo Domes, California, Shelby L. Isom
Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports
The Long Valley volcanic region, eastern California, USA is most famous for the caldera-forming eruption which produced the Bishop Tuff ~760,000 years ago. Over the last 3,000 years volcanism has been focused in the western margin of the region through punctuated eruptions of silicic lavas and domes. Three simultaneous effusive silicic eruptions, ~600 years ago, generated three lava domes: Obsidian Dome; Glass Creek Dome; and Deadman Dome which erupted onto vastly different topographies. These domes are exceptionally unique as they erupted variable amounts of two textural and chemical endmember lavas (crystal-rich and crystal-poor) that intimately mixed. The overarching goal of …
Studies Of Electromagnetic Counterparts To Gravitational-Wave Sources And The Nonlinear Gravitational-Wave Memory Effect, Ashok Choudhary
Studies Of Electromagnetic Counterparts To Gravitational-Wave Sources And The Nonlinear Gravitational-Wave Memory Effect, Ashok Choudhary
Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports
In this dissertation, theoretical/computational results are presented from the investigations of three different topics within the general research areas of gravitational wave astrophysics and electromagnetic counterparts. First, general relativistic force-free electromagnetic theory and its application to black hole magnetospheres are discussed. In this connection, simulations of a binary black hole merger are examined using the open-source software, GiRaFFE, which is used to model black holes’ magnetospheres and to study supermassive black-hole binary mergers in an external magnetic field. In the simulations, a helical magnetic field structure around each black hole is observed. Electromagnetic energy flux is observed during the inspiral …
Population And Migratory Ecology Of Canada Warblers (Cardellina Canadensis) In The Central Appalachian Mountains, West Virginia, Usa, Stephanie H. Augustine
Population And Migratory Ecology Of Canada Warblers (Cardellina Canadensis) In The Central Appalachian Mountains, West Virginia, Usa, Stephanie H. Augustine
Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports
Nearctic-Neotropical migrant birds experience a wide range of environmental conditions throughout their annual cycle; thus, it is particularly challenging to evaluate the spatial factors that may influence population growth. The Canada Warbler (Cardellina canadensis) faces substantial range-wide population declines, but little study has been conducted regarding elements occurring across the entire year that drive demographic rates. The aims of this research are (1) determine the relationship between Canada Warbler population demographic rates and environmental conditions along an elevation gradient in the central Appalachian Mountains and (2) ascertain the nonbreeding season location and migratory routes used by the central …
Exploring Cyberterrorism, Topic Models And Social Networks Of Jihadists Dark Web Forums: A Computational Social Science Approach, Vivian Fiona Guetler
Exploring Cyberterrorism, Topic Models And Social Networks Of Jihadists Dark Web Forums: A Computational Social Science Approach, Vivian Fiona Guetler
Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports
This three-article dissertation focuses on cyber-related topics on terrorist groups, specifically Jihadists’ use of technology, the application of natural language processing, and social networks in analyzing text data derived from terrorists' Dark Web forums. The first article explores cybercrime and cyberterrorism. As technology progresses, it facilitates new forms of behavior, including tech-related crimes known as cybercrime and cyberterrorism. In this article, I provide an analysis of the problems of cybercrime and cyberterrorism within the field of criminology by reviewing existing literature focusing on (a) the issues in defining terrorism, cybercrime, and cyberterrorism, (b) ways that cybercriminals commit a crime in …
An Analysis On Adversarial Machine Learning: Methods And Applications, Ali Dabouei
An Analysis On Adversarial Machine Learning: Methods And Applications, Ali Dabouei
Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports
Deep learning has witnessed astonishing advancement in the last decade and revolutionized many fields ranging from computer vision to natural language processing. A prominent field of research that enabled such achievements is adversarial learning, investigating the behavior and functionality of a learning model in presence of an adversary. Adversarial learning consists of two major trends. The first trend analyzes the susceptibility of machine learning models to manipulation in the decision-making process and aims to improve the robustness to such manipulations. The second trend exploits adversarial games between components of the model to enhance the learning process. This dissertation aims to …
Bayesian Methods For Multi-Messenger Analysis Of Supermassive Black Hole Binaries: Pulsars And Quasars And Gravitational Waves, Oh My!, Caitlin A. Witt
Bayesian Methods For Multi-Messenger Analysis Of Supermassive Black Hole Binaries: Pulsars And Quasars And Gravitational Waves, Oh My!, Caitlin A. Witt
Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports
Supermassive black hole binaries (SMBHBs) can lurk, often unseen, in the centers of post-merger galaxies, and pulsar timing arrays (PTAs) are rapidly approaching the sensitivities required to detect nanohertz gravitational waves (GWs) from these giant pairs. Independently, numerous electromagnetic surveys are seeking evidence of these dynamic duos’ effects on their host galaxies by searching for periodicities in time-domain observations. Combining these two methods to use multi-messenger techniques allows us to learn more about these binaries than using one messenger alone. In this thesis, we have created Bayesian methods to search for SMBHBs using electromagnetic observations of quasars and through GW …
Learning Representations For Human Identification, Sinan Sabri
Learning Representations For Human Identification, Sinan Sabri
Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports
Long-duration visual tracking of people requires the ability to link track snippets (a.k.a. tracklets) based on the identity of people. In lack of the availability of motion priors or hard biometrics (e.g., face, fingerprint, or iris), the common practice is to leverage soft biometrics for matching tracklets corresponding to the same person in different sightings. A common choice is to use the whole-body visual appearance of the person, as determined by the clothing, which is assumed to not change during tracking. The problem is challenging because distinct images of the same person may look very different, since no restrictions are …
Hot-Carrier Dynamics And Transport Mechanisms In Inas/Alassb Multiple Quantum Wells, Herath Pathiranage Janaka Chathuranga Piyathilaka
Hot-Carrier Dynamics And Transport Mechanisms In Inas/Alassb Multiple Quantum Wells, Herath Pathiranage Janaka Chathuranga Piyathilaka
Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports
Semiconductor photovoltaics convert light into electricity through the extraction of photo-excited charge carriers. Among the most important parameters for a photovoltaic cell are good optical absorption in the desired region of the electromagnetic spectrum, and sufficient excited-state lifetimes and mobilities of the photocarriers to allow for charge separation and extraction before recombination. For solar cell applications there are significant challenges to overcome to improve the efficiency of the light-to-electricity conversion. The cells are most commonly made of silicon, which has a nearly perfect bandgap for absorbing the most solar radiation, an indirect bandgap to give a long photocarrier lifetime and …